Lecture at IIM Lucknow, 15 dec 2016

Talk at I.P. College, Univ of Delhi 2016

Mata Sundri College Seminar September 2016

With Prof. Girishwar Mishra sir.

With Delhi Police Commissioner, Alok Verma Ji

Delivered a lecture to Dy. S.P. at Moradabad Police Academy on Jun 13 2016.

Farewell April 2016

With Japenese Students

Amity University Lecture Feb 2016

Exploring the Realm of Positive Psychology and the Workplace with a Glimpse of Eastern Perspective

Exploring the Realm of Positive Psychology and the workplace with a glimpse of eastern perspective

By Dr. Navin Kumar

Associate professor in Psychology (BRAC, University of Delhi)

E-mail- navinbrac@yahoo.co.in

Goal of positive psychology is to focus on neglected good things in life namely. Happiness is the continuum of positive and negative life emotions.

Valuable insights of positivity have been derived from the trenches of life’s hardship and suffering.

An engaged life is characterized by pursuing pursuits, work and leisure related to one’s interest and sense of autonomy, engagement and meaningfulness are complementary to each other and an important foundation of personal satisfaction & health.

Positive psychology is an attempt to move from a stable psychic anarchy to a state of psychic hygiene.

Modern age of capitalism and scientific methods has led to the growth of individualistic activity. Man became a log in the vast economic machine and its main purpose happiness or salvation became less important. Exclusive love for one person and the withdrawal of love for others is contradictory. Selfishness and greed which is on the rise is an endless effort to satisfy the need without ever reaching satisfaction. Selfishness breeds envy of anyone who might have more at the conscious level such persons is anxious, restless and at the unconscious level they dislike themselves.

We are being isolated and alienated with ourselves in our striving for modern selfishness that is rooted in the frustration of the real self and whose object is social self. The so-called rationality of technology and economic systems of production factories clothes has made him/her estranged from the product of his own hands and the masters of his man-made world seems to no more a master of it. The scope of manipulation has increased in every domain of our relationships. Our self- esteem is highly dependent on success of personality and acquiring popularity has become essential or the confirmation of others is more important. In the capitalistic economy superior power of big enterprises has increased the insecurity and powerlessness of the small enterprises. The situation of employees in enterprises has also changed and employees hardly get opportunity to interact with the Boss and they have to deal with an abstract figure of management. As an abstract customer we are welcome to the big departmental stores having vast buildings. Profession of commodities displayed but as a concrete customer we are utterly unimportant. Academic institutions are also becoming the dulling the capacity for critical thinking and pedogical patterns followed hardly provides any space for the student’s participations in the decision making.

Rapid pace of urbanization constant accosting bombardments on the roads, breaking news every hour leaving one no choice to decide what is important, huge buildings and many other expressions in which an individual feels like a small particle to control these uncontrollable dimensions.

In the present day society optimum possibility for individual and social functioning is not guided by spontaneity but withdrawing into phantasy for the lack of production of self- expression.

 Positive Emotions:-

Happiness-

Can we experience negative affect and “positive affect at the same time?”Could we go to an engaging movie and come out feeling both pleasure and fear?

Feeling positive emotion related to altruism, solving problems and good decision making.

Fredrickson (2000) demonstrated that the experience of joy expands the realm of what a person feels like doing at the time, this is referred to as the broadening of an individual momentary thought-action repertoire.

Joy induces playfulness (Frijda-1994). Positive emotions may increase resistance to the common cold (psychosomatic medicine vol.65, no.1)

People who scored low on positive emotional style were three times more likely to get sick than those with high positive emotional style (Sheldon Cohen).

Roots of happiness:

                           Objective circumstances:

Money, good job, marriage, good relationship, culture play an important role in happiness.

The Hedonic Treadmill: - The tendency for objective changes to wear off is called hedonic treadmill (Brickman & Campbell 1971).

A big success at work or in romance will bring joy for a while, but then the person goes back to being happy or unhappy as before.

                    Sudden wealth makes a person very happy but does the ability to be happy also increases at a permanent note. Sudden wealth may give rise to providence, unnatural relation with friends &relatives and so on.

Subjective roots of happiness-                                      

                                                10 years down the line a person may have different job, home, hobbies and money, some different family members but does their happiness will also change?  not necessary. Some people do change for better or worse but mostly people who are happy now will remain happy in future.

In research also it is found that people who expressed positive emotion live much longer than those with negative emotions.

Theories of happiness have been categorized into three types.

                      Need and goal satisfaction theories:

                                       Freud, Maslow proposed that we are happy because we have reached our goals.

Process/activity theory:

                                       This theory proposed that engaging in particular activities generates happiness. Mike Csikszentmihalyi (cheek-sent-me-high) proposed that people who experience Flow (engagement in interesting activities) in daily life tend to be very happy (2000).

Genetic & personality disposition theories:

                                        Theorists of this camp like Diener, Larsen & Watson consider happiness as a statue dimension. Relationship between personality & happiness is more idiographic. Lucas and Fujita (2000) shared that extroversion’s neuroticism, two of the big five factors of personality (openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion & neuroticism) were closely related to the characteristics of happiness.

Psychologists supporting the hedonistic mode states subjective well being as synonymous with happiness whereas other scholars support Aristotle’s view on eudemonia is comprised of happiness with meaning.

Martin E.P Seligman states that when well being comes from engaging our strengths & virtues, our lives are imbued with authenticity. Feelings are states momentary occurrences that need not be recurring feature of personality. Traits in contrast are two states – negative or positive characteristic that brings about good feelings & gratification.

Lyubomirsky, Sheldon & Schkade (2005) proposed that “a person’s chronic happiness level is governed by three major factors: a genetically determined set point for happiness, happiness related circumstantial factors & happiness relevant activities & practices” (p-111).

Lyubomirsky & colleagues “architecture of sustained happiness” (p.114) incorporate what is known about genetic components of happiness, the circumstantial/demographic determinants of happiness, & the complex process of intentional human change. They further proposed that genetics account for 50% of population variance for happiness. Whereas life circumstances (both good & bad) & intentional activity (attempts at healthy living & positive change) account for 10% & 40% of the population variance for happiness, respectively.

Keyes & Lopez (2002 p.49) define “complete mental health” as combination of “high levels of symptoms of emotional well being & social well being, as well absence of recent mental illness.”

David Myers suggestion for a happier life (The Pursuit of Happiness, 1993):

Realize that enduring happiness does not come from success. People adapt to changing circumstances even to wealth & disability.

Take control of your time – mastering their use of time.

Act happy – talk as if you feel positive self esteem, are optimistic & outgoing.

Seek work & leisure that engages your skills.

Join the movement.

Give your body the sleep it wants.

Give priority to close relationships. Intimate friendships with those who care deeply about you can help you weather difficulties.

Focus beyond self happiness – increase helpfulness.

Keep a gratitude journal - those who pause each day to reflect some positive aspects of their lives (their health, friends, family, freedom, education, senses, natural surroundings & so on) experience integrated well being.

Nurture your spiritual self.

Life enhancement strategies:

Love – surround yourself with happy people. Tell those close to you that you love them.

Work – start a meeting with positive comments about peer contribution, bring homemade treats to class.

Play – engage in your favorite play.

Stanton, Kirk, Cameron & Danoff – Burg (2000) identified two processes involved in approach oriented emotion focused coping, one involves emotional processing or attempts to understand emotions & a second involves emotional expression or free or intentional display of feeling.

Emotional intelligence– in 1960, Mororer addressed the prevailing thoughts about emotions undermining intelligence by suggesting that emotion was in fact “a high order of intelligence” (p-308).

Salovey & Mayer’s four branch ability model of emotional intelligence include perceiving emotions, using emotions to facilitate thought, understanding emotions & managing emotions.

Emotional story telling:

When people adapt an approach to use more positive emotion words (like happy or laugh) as part of their expression their well being improves. Mere act of written disclosure of emotions upheaval is called emotional story telling or pennebaker paradigm.

Putting upsetting experiences into words allows people to stop inhibiting their thoughts & feelings to begin to organize their thoughts & perhaps find meaning in their traumas & to reintegrate their social networks”. (Niederhoffer & Pennebaker, p-581, 2002).

Optimism:

Seligman reformulated his theory of helplessness to formulate theory of learned optimism.

Optimists explain negative things highlighting bad outcomes account to other people or environment, interpret had event as exception & explain had outcomes to a particular domain instead of generalizing it.

Learned optimists has following characteristics: (Carr 2004)

Better academic performances (Deterson & Barrett, 1987, Seligman, 1998).

Superior athletic performances (Seligman, 1990).

More productive work records (Seligman, 1986).

Greater satisfaction in interpersonal relationships (Fincham, 2000).

More effective coping with life stressors (Nolen – Hoekesma, 2000) .

Less vulnerability to depression (Abramson, Alloy et al., 2000).

Superior physical health (Peterson, 2000).

Hope – (Snyder)

Hope is defined as goal directed thinking in which persons utilizes pathways thinking (the perceived capacity to find routes to desired goals) & agency thinking (the requisite motivation to use those routes).

Altruism:

Altruism is a behavior aimed at benefitting another person. It can be motivated by personal egotism or it can be prompted by “pure” empathic desire to benefit another person, irrespective of personal gain (Batson, 1991).

Volunteerism is thought to be a naturally related concept to altruism (Haski- Leventhal, 2009).

New York times reported that across the united states as a whole 72% of American said they were devoting less time to volunteerism & other civic activities, like providing food & shelter to those in need (Strom, 2009).

Egotism is the motive to pursue some sort of personal gain or benefit through targeted behavior.

Most of the thinkers believed that egotism is a primary motive of altruism.

C.Daniel Batson in his book The Altruism question, altruism involves human behaviors that are aimed at promoting another person’s well – being.

Altruism can be motivated egotism, empathy or values.

Gratitude

The term gratitude is derived from the Latin concept gratia, which entails some variant of grace, gracefulness & graciousness (Emmons, McCullough & Tsang 2003). As such gratitude taps into the prosperity to appreciate & savor everyday events & experiences. (Bryant 1989, Langston 1994)

People can enhance their gratitude by participating in acts of humility & sharing even small gesture of thanks with the people around them. Gratitude also helps people to appreciate other person’s qualities & they are more likely to help others. Gratitude includes s a sense of gratefulness for the people, which comprise not only receiving but also acts of giving.

On the basis of a multidimensional prayer inventory, (Laird & his colleagues (2004) developed a 3 items thanksgiving self report subscale on which people respond along a 7 point response scale. (1= never, 2= very rarely, 3= rarely, 4= sometimes, 5= many a time, 6= frequently, 7= always.

Three thanksgiving items are:

I offered thanks for specific things.

I expressed my appreciation for my circumstances.

I thanked god for things occurring in my life.

44 –item GRAT – Gratitude, Resentment, & appreciation Test – developed by Watkins.

The trait self report index that appears most promising is the Gratitude questionnaire (GQ – 6) (McCullough, Emmons & Tsang, 2002).

Forgiveness:

Philanthropist John Templeton (1990) did attach importance to this concept.

Forgiveness is a freeing from negative attachment to the source that has transgressed against a person (Thompson et al. 2005)

McCullough (2000) forgiveness reflects increases in prosocial behavior toward another such that there is 1). Less desire to avoid the transgressing person and to harm or seek revenge toward that individual and 2). Increased desire to act positively toward the transgressing person.

Forgiveness is defined as “a willingness to abandon one’s right to resentment, negative judgment and indifferent behavior toward one who unjustly hurt us, while fostering the undeserved qualities of compassion, generosity and even love toward him or her (Enright, Freedman & Rique, 1998 p-46-47).

The goal of forgiveness is to promote a nondistorted, realistic appraisal of relationship of two people. Forgiveness promotes the stages of recovery from psychological trauma over time.

Couple progresses from the initial impact stage to search for meaning or understanding of what happened to them. Finally the couple moves to a recovery stage in which they “get on with their lives”. (Gordon et al 2005).

In Impact stage there is typically a rampage of negative emotions – hurt, fear & anger. Then in the Meaning stage the partners search desperately to comprehend why the affair happened. Lastly the couple slowly begins to recapture a sense of control over their lives.

For Enright (2000) it is crucial that forgiving person develop a benevolent stance toward the transgressing person.

By cancellation of negative emotions toward the transgressing person forgiving person also avoids himself from the victim role. Forgiveness does not happen automatically. It requires a deep understanding of the situations and circumstances and an informed decision to move from negative to positive feelings.

According to Worthington (2002) REACH model is useful for the forgiveness to occur. Recall the hurt and the nature of the injury caused, promote empathy in both partners, altruistically give the gift of forgiveness between partners, commit verbally to forgive the partner and hold onto the forgiveness for each other.

REACH MODEL (Ripley & Worthington):

Recall the hurt & the injury caused, promotes empathy in both partners. Altruistically give the gift of forgiveness commit verbally to forgive the partner. Hold onto the forgiveness for each other.

Forgiving oneself – Shame reflects an overall feeling that – “I am a bad person”. Whereas guilt taps a situation specific negative self view, for example “I did a bad thing” (C Tangney, Boone & Dearing 2005)

Forgiveness of a situation – Target of forgiveness can be another person, oneself or situation.

Empathy, altruism, gratitude & forgiveness are linked to prosocial behavior patterns. The reinforcement of positivity that they receive through such acts motivates them to act in future as well.

Gratitude, forgiveness, & altruism are very crucial in the establishment of a moral society.

Attachment, Love & Flourishing Relationships:

Love – the definitive history of love (Singer 1984a, 1984b, 1987) highlights the following 4 traditions that define primary emotional experience:

1.       Eros – search for the beautiful

2.       Philia – the affection in friendship

3.       Nomos – submission & obedience to the divine

4.       Agape – bestowal of love by the divine

“Romantic love may not be essential in life but it may be essential to joy. Life without love would be for many people like a black and white movie full of events and activities but without the color that gives vibrancy and provides a sense of celebration” (Hendrick & Hendrick 1992, p. 117).

Romantic love is a complex emotion that may be parsed into passionate & companionate love (Berscheid & Walster, 1978)

Passionate love (intense arousal) involves a state of absorption between two people that often is accompanied by moods ranging from ecstasy to anguish. Companionate love (soothing, steady & warmth) is manifested in a strong bond with feelings of comfort & peace. These two can occur simultaneously.

In developing triangular theory of love, psychologist Robert Sternberg (1986) theorized that love is a mix of three components:

1)      Passion – physical attractiveness & romantic drives

2)      Intimacy – feelings of closeness & connectedness

3)      Commitment – involving the decision to initiate & sustain a relationship.

Eastern influence theory of Arthur Aron & Elaine Aron (1986) describe a self expansion theory of love. According to this theory relationship satisfaction is a natural byproduct of self – expansion love. I love you – means understand you, support you.

Wisdom:

For Erikson, wisdom reflects a maturity in which concerns for the collective good transcend personal interests (Erikson 1959). Robert Sternberg proposed the balance theory of wisdom as specifying “the processes (balancing of interests & of responses to environmental contexts) in relation to the goal of wisdom (achievement of common good) (Sternberg, 1998 p-350)

The same person’s response to a situation differs at various stages of life due to experience, cultural background, values and generates wise responses. Wisdom involves coming to a judgment when competing interests are combined.

According to Baltes & his colleagues wisdom is the “ways & means of planning, managing & understanding a good life”. (Baltes & Staudinger, 2000 p-124).

Becoming wise is a trait that can be cultivated. Even difficulties, daily crises, knowledge, understanding of environment & culture, motivation to do better are the building components of wisdom.

Baltes & Staudinger (2000) suggested that fluid intelligence, creativity, openness to experience, psychological mindedness and general life experiences “orchestrate” to produce wisdom. It is also recognized that role models, flexible thinking, guidance by teachers and mentors, even travel is a good guide to wisdom. Economic background, age, gender, professional background are not determining forces for development of wisdom.

Courage

In our daily life we hear lots of stories of courage by people of different walks. Courage generally involves confidence, patience, perseverance, physical strength as a virtue to face the challenges. Physical and moral aspects of courage have always been appreciated.

Petersen & Seligman in 2004 conceptualized courage as a core human virtue comprising strengths as valor (taking physical, intellectual & emotional stances in the face of danger) authenticity, enthusiasm/zest, and industry, perseverance (undertaking tasks and challenges and finishing them).

O’ Byrne et.al (2000) identified three types of courage as physical, moral and vital. According to her physical courage involves the attempted maintenance of societal good, moral courage the behavioral expression of authenticity even in discomforting situation. Vital courage refers to perseverance trough a disease even when the outcome is uncertain. Sometimes great acts of courage save thousands of lives through the miraculous efforts of a person.

Psychological courage is required to overcome threats to our psychological stability of relation, stress & sadness. Putman (1997) described it is strength in facing one’s destructive habits.

Civil courage is defined by Greitemeyer, Oswald, Fischer & Frey (2007) as “brave behavior accompanied by anger and indignation that intends to enforce societal and ethical norms without considering one’s own social costs.” (P-115)

Measurement of courage and strengthening of courageous virtues can be achieved. Woodard (2004) used a carefully researched definition of courage as the willingness to act for a meaningful (noble, good) cause, despite experiencing fear. Courage can also be inculcated through role models (celebrities, cinema, mass media, family values, national character and so on. In India also in recent times lots of atrocities taking place against women and the marginal section of society. First time to stand up for protecting someone liberty may be difficult but later on it becomes easy for these persons to act courageously.

Mindfulness, Flow and Spirituality:

There is no dearth of example in our daily lives that we do certain acts over and over again even when the eventual outcome is negative. Mindless pursuits of meaningless activities leave us feeling bore and empty. Every day in our technology life style we spend hours on facebook, internet and television and realizing at the end of the day that had I not wasted my precious hours engaging in an activity that had no or least significant outcome. The positive pursuits may bring about sanity in daily life that is grounded in competence (Langer, 1989, 1997) and happiness (Myers, 2000).

Moment to moment search for optimal experiences gives us satisfaction and joy. Psychology of deeper meaning leads to knowing the significance of our experience with our true emotional selves.

From a positive psychology perspective everyday of 16 hours presents us with 20,000 moments of 3 seconds opportunities for engagement, for overcoming the negative and for pursuing the positive. By attaching a bit of intentionality to our belief one can pursue on a daily basis a richer life experience that includes more novelty (mindfulness), more absorption (flow) and attention to the sacred (spirituality).

Each activity that we are engaged with mindfulness can bring extra joy and contentment. Suppose as a teacher you are mindful about the student’s overall well being.  It will bring more satisfaction as compared to a teacher who just focuses on academics. Similarly if a nurse is mindful of her care giving activity and patient’s well being then the moment to moment choices of activity will be more positive.

In most recent research Langer (2009b) has conducted studies showing that being mindful about various aspects of our life can have great health and well being benefits. In her book, “Clockwise: Mindful Health and the Power of Possibility”, Langer states that many age related declines & maladies maybe at least in part related to the type of mindset that elderly develops as older groups that exists in same cultures. Langer states that in being more mindful about not accepting these stereotypes we may age better.

Mindlessness is about being trapped in a rigid mindset, irrespective of contexts and circumstances, whereas mindfulness is about a process of actively drawing novel distinctions, generating sensibility to the context. Automaticity of behavior gives us certificates of positive evaluations from others, removing us from the harm of exploring uncertainty. Langer (2009b) argues that “aspects of our culture lead us to try to reduce uncertainty.” We are in a state of constant hurry to meet evaluations of others and imposing our own evaluations. Whereas mindfulness requires emotional awareness and self regulated attention or Meta cognition and a trust in unfolding of new situations.

The aim of mindfulness meditation generally speaking is the “development of deep insight into the nature of mental processes, consciousness, identity, reality, and the development of optimal states of psychological well being and consciousness (Walsh 1983 p.19) through opening up”.

Flow:

According to Csikszentmihalyi (cheek sent me high, 1976) people pursue particular goals with great intensity in the absence of external rewards (money and praise). Artistic creations, scientific feat, doctors and a variety of people remain engaged single mindedly disregarding fatigues and discomfort. Merging of action and awareness is considered as a state of flow. In a state of flow time is not important rather it is more intrinsically rewarding. The loss of self consciousness occurs as flow emerges and it is a state of intense concentration in the act one is doing. A painter lost in his painting, a social worker completely involved in the flow of his mission, a son caring his parents with no concern for outer recognition are some of the examples of flow state activity. Personality traits of curiosity, persistence and low-centeredness are some of the characteristics associated with flow state. Csikszentmihalyi described about auto telic personality (from Greek words autos meaning self & telos meaning “end”), exhibited by a person who enjoys life for own sake rather than meeting external goals.

The purpose of flow researchers is to help people identify those activities that gives them flow and to encourage people to invest their concentration and energies in that direction.

Spirituality:

In 2000, Hill defined spirituality as “the feelings, thoughts & behavior that arise from a search from the sacred” (p-66). Pargament and Mahoney (2009) also defined spirituality “as search for the sacred” & elaborated, “people can take a virtually limitless number of pathways in their attempts to discover, conserve and transform the sacred.” (p.612). Peterson & Seligman (2004) contend that spirituality is a universal strength of transcendence, stating “although the specific content of spiritual beliefs varies, all cultures have a concept of an ultimate, transcendent, sacred & divine force” (p.601).

Spiritual strivings are associated with positive human values of respect for oneself and others, interconnectedness of humanity, well being, hope and optimism.

There are ways that spirituality can be practiced in our daily life, spending time in a prayer, meditation and remaining involved in religious activities of service, listening to great things from mythological texts lead to a general positive orientation towards life.

Pro-social Behavior & Positive Psychology:

Altruism, gratitude, empathy are pro-social behavior patterns along with forgiveness that can have positive implications for the healthy community living. It is an ironical situation these days that people in modern era have minimized their face to face interactions muting our sense of sensibility towards others. This phenomenon is more prevalent in an urban setting where people next door do not interact with each other &and they do not feel bad about it. Ethno cultural empathy is also lacking due to our less interaction with individuals from different cultural backgrounds.

Volunteering for social activities has gone down considerably in the recent years. Altruism is behavior that is aimed at benefiting other person. Altruism can be motivated by personal gain or benefit called egotism or through desire to benefit another person irrespective of personal gain called empathy. Egotism – altruism hypothesis suggests that we help others because it benefits us to do so such as praise, reward and so on. C. Daniel Batson has described empathy in his book, The Altruism Question; altruism involves human behavior that is aimed at promoting another person’s well being.

It is a perquisite for normal population people to have interactions with the people in need to have greater empathy. For example if students from Goa visit Uttrakhand to see the victims of disaster they will be able to break the us and then differences and realize that they can take delight in helping them.

Parallels in the life circumstances make people realize that we are all part of the same “grand journey”, increases the propensity of a person to “walk in the shoes” of another – with greater empathy the result. In a collectivistic culture like India fostering the we perspective, can reveal routes toward cultivating altruist behaviors.

Gratitude is derived from the Latin word gratia which means grace or gratefulness. According to Robert Emmons (2005, Personal Communication), gratitude emerges upon recognizing that one has obtained a positive outcome from another individual who behaved in a way that was 1.) Costly to him or her,        2.) Valuable to the recipient and, 3.) Intentionally rendered.

Gratitude is also a natural tendency to appreciate the everyday experiences and routine activities. Describing about gratitude David Hume (1888, p.460) said that ingratitude is “the most horrible & unnatural of all crimes that humans are capable of committing”.

Those people whose gratitude domain is made are likely to be more optimistic, more connected to other people and happier. If one introspects not only about what one receives but also of what we gives to others, gratitude awareness will enhance.

Positive Psychology and healthy work place:

The emergence of a positive field of positive organizational research (e.g. Kelloway 2011) .Organizations can foster virtuous behaviors, subjective well- being at individual and institutional level and can increase in psychological capital and flourishing at work.

There is a growing amount of research in the area of positive psychology to support the theory that money can’t buy happiness and a term coined by (Myers 2000) “paradox of affluence” has led them to conclude that income and well-being are not positively correlated.

Positive organizational scholarship was pioneered by Cameron, Dutton and Quinn (2003) and emphasized the positive professions, dynamics, perspectives and out comes that occurs within organizational contexts and that enable flourishing within individuals (Cameron & Spreitzer 2012).

Employee’s have high work related subjective well-being if they are satisfied with their job and they experience frequent positive emotions and infrequent negative emotions at work (Bakker &Oerlemans 2012).

In a workplace context, subjective well-being has been linked to job performance, tax performance and organizational citizenship behavior (Bakker & Oerlemans 2012).

Work identity is an important source of self- identity and pursuing meaningful work activities leads to happiness.

Psy-cap efficacy is a relatively new construct with strong application to work place which comprises of self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resilience. Resilience is the ability to bounce back in adverse situations. By developing these core psychological competencies of their employees, organizations may promote self-awareness in leaders and employees and a more positive perception of what they aspire to do within their organization (Avolio & Luthans2006). Heritable set point, international activities and life circumstances are important sources of happiness. Sustainable happiness levels can be achieved through gratitude acts of kindness and clarity of vision about one’s self.

Work- Life Balance:

Role expectations that we occupy in our life is a result of expectations of other’s about appropriate behavior in a particular context.  It has become a valid conclusion after researches in this area that work life happiness or conflict will have a positive effect in the family and the vice-versa. According to systems theory a system can be defined as “Any two or more parts that are related, such that change in any one part changes all parts.” (Hanson 1995 p-27).

According to work family border theory, work family balance is defined as “satisfaction and good functioning at work and home, with a minimum of role Conflict” (Clark 2000 p-751).

Mindfulness has been significantly associated with work-family balance along with gender as an importance source of this balance or conflict. Number of hours worked in a day and changing schedules of work can also be a source of conflict.

Virtual offices and always working with computers can blur the boundaries between work and home.

Antecedents of Empowerment:

In order to enhance empowerment task autonomy, positive social climate, expressing confidence in employees through participation in decision making are important factors. Involvement of staff for initiating organizational change and co-operation sight at every stage is equally important to bitching empowerment. High levels of job empowerment increase the commitment and reduce the stress component.

HERO (Hope, Efficacy, Resilience and Optimism) model was used by Luthans (2012).

New HR strategies focus on the assessment and evaluation of engagement and reinforce engagement habits. Positive leadership can have empowering effects on employees.

Learning needs to be active and learner should be given equal importance like the instructor. Errors, mistakes should not be avoided and an exploratory learning should be encouraged.

Sense –making communication where employees understand and make sense of the organizational changes. Schein (1999) recommends the use of small groups of assessing organizational culture.

Respectful Workplaces:

People perceive social clues at the workplace and messages from others have an important impact on social identity of people at work. Respectful interactions at the workplace enable people to appreciate each other’s potential as a shared community.

Transformation leadership processes help in creating a health climate of trust and self-efficacy at the work-place. T-leaders increases followers self-efficacy through the Pygmalion effect (i.e. leaders hold and communicate high performance expectations of followers; Sivanathan, Annol, Turner & Barling, 2004) instilling the idea in followers that they can perform to high standards and that the leader will support them in doing so (Bass & Riggio, 2006).

Positive Psychology of Education:

It is an undeniable reality in every society that there are good teachers and bad teachers. Poor teachers not only impair the learning and achievements of students, they can also inflict deep psychological pain and development of a negative attitude about education in general. Important components of positive schooling are care, trust and respect for diversity. Trust in the classroom has received considerable attention among educators and the consensus is that it yields both psychological and performance benefits for students (Bryk & Schneider, 20002; Collins 2001).

Encouraging self-reliance and confidence among students should be an important goal in the socialization of the students.

Teachers should respect the diversity of ideas and must not impose his/her world view. It is very important for the students to realize the importance of their input in the learning process.

Hope, motivation and new approaches added with a sense of human has been found to be helpful in the teaching learning process. Unleashing the enthusiasm and joy of learning that increases intrinsic motivation to learn.

Buddhism:

Before I tell you about Buddhism it is necessary to discuss the life history of Buddha known by Sakyamuni the sage of Sakya’s or Thatagata, he who has arrived at truth. Born in 567 B.C almost six century before Christ there lived a prince in India who left everything in his search for nobility and spirituality known as Gautama, another name Siddhartha (family name), he who has accomplished his aim, his father’s name Suddhodana and mother’s Maya. Gautama’s mother died seven days after his birth. He married Yasodhara, had a son Rahul who later became his disciple. The story of suffering on the roads of Kapilvastu aged man bowed down by years, man sick with fever, mourners weeping and mendicant friar awakened his consciousness. Buddha as seeker of light adopted ascestism at the age of 29. For next 6 years he travelled to strange places with his five friends to a solitary spot in Uruvella but could not get any solace from it.

The popular story describes the act with great force. It is said he arose at midnight went to door of his wife’s chamber and saw her sleeping, resting one hand on her baby’s head. He had wished to take his son in his arms for a last embrace but the fear of walking the young mother withheld him. He turned away and fled into the night in search of light.

(Rhys Davis. J.R.A.S, 1891, the sects of Buddhism) He took to meditation and prayer under “Bo tree” and Maya attempted to describe him with allurements and violent attacks but he sat for seven weeks under the tree.

He achieved salvation and addressed his disciples “And now, herthern, I take my leave of you, all the constituents of being are transitory: work out your salivation with diligence” (Edwyn Bevan’s Hellenism and Christianity p-185).

Suffering: Buddha talked about the four noble truths that there is suffering, that it has a cause, that it can be suppressed and that there is a way to accomplish this, “Buddha concludes, existence is pain the struggle to maintain individuality is painful and the fluctuations of fortune are frightful (Samyutta Nikaya; Oldenberg, Buddha, p-216-217)

Regarding the causes of suffering Buddhism describes the role of craving for the satisfaction of senses and the craving for prosperity as responsible factors. Transient things that vanish are the source of suffering.

Ignorance and false desires are main causes of suffering.

Buddhist theory distinguishes individuality into two broad divisions Nama and Rupa, corresponding to mental and physical features. Whatever is gross is form of Rupa and whatever is not having form is called Arupino or phases of consciousness i.e. Skandhas of feelings, perception, synthesis and intellect.

Namarupa has a division of five skandhas-

         i.            Rupa- material attributes

       ii.            Vedana-feeling

      iii.            Samjana- perception

     iv.            Samskara’s or mental dispositions and will

       v.            Vijnana or reasons.

These five together constitute the complex grouping of self. Vijnana is intelligent which comprehends abstract contents not conditioned by sense contact, while feelings perceptions and dispositions are. (Milinda, ii 3.10)

Samkhya System:

                    The authorship of this system is ascribed to Kapila, which is derived from Samkahya or number giving enumeration of the principals of cosmos. According to sayings Kapila was son of Brahma, others say him as avatar of Vishnu. Still others identify with him as incarceration of Agni and dated in the century before Buddha i.e. the Samkhya pravacana sutra is attributed to Kapila.

 Most of its work was written in 15^th century and 16^th century A. D. According to samkhya principle the existence of prakriti is due to principle of causality. In the words of samkhya theory, cause and effects are developed and undeveloped stages of the same entity. All the production is development (Udbhava) and all the destruction is envelopment (Anubhava) or disappearance into the cause (Chan vi, 2,2).  Identity of an object is fundamental while the difference may be practical. The effect and cause are contained in the same process although it is not evident easily. For example seeds are pressed to produce the oil and crush the paddy to get the rice. It also distinguishes between two kinds of causes, efficient and material. The material cause directly brings to the effect. The efficient cause exerts influence from outside. When there is a change in the quality of a thing it is called Dharma. Parinama, when the potential becomes actual and when the change is only external, it is a case of Laksana- Parinama and when change occurs only due to mere lapses of time it is known as Avastha-parinama.

Prakriti:

          All the things and states are subject to the law of change taking place everywhere every moment. There must be an uncaused cause if effects are latent in the causes. Samkhya Karika argues that individual things limited in magnitude can’t be the source of universe. There is obvious unity of universe. This suggests a single cause as different elements are not completely distinct from one another. Samkhya also suggest that nothing can be evolved which is not in kind originally involved. While every effect is caused, prakriti has no cause, but is the cause of all effects, from which it is inferred.

The products are caused while prakriti is uncaused. The products are dependent while prakriti is independent, the products are many in number, limited in space and time while prakriti is one all pervading and eternal(Pradhiyate(S.P.B., i-125)

We do not know the real nature of prakriti or the gunas, since our knowledge is confined to the phenomena; it is devoid of sound and touch, practically the limit beyond which we can’t go. It is empirically an abstraction, a mere name. But it must be assumed to exist as the pious of all creation. (vayasa. Y.b.IV 13, S.P.B. i-128, Vishnupurana. i. 2-2021)

The Gunas:

The development of prakriti takes place with the support of three gunas called Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. Sat is also known as light, produces happiness and perfection. Rajas is a life of activity and produce pain. Tamas is the obstacle, indifference and restrain producing sloth. The term Sattva, Rajas & Tamas are always changing into one another. They evolve, join and separate. No one loses its power though the others may be actively at work. (Y.S. II, 18)

                                                     All things are composed of three gunas. According to samkhya theory a thing is always produced not created in which Sattva the essence to be realized is impeded by obstacles of Tamas, and rajas is the force for the creation of the essential. The Sattva represents the positive and Tamas represents the negative while process of stirring is represented by rajas.

Evolution:

       The natural condition of prakriti is state of rest, all forces held together in state of equilibrium. When there is a disturbance of the equilibrium of the gunas we have the destruction of prakriti, the relieving of tension by overweighing of one side and the sitting in of the process of the coming.

Mahat or the great signifies the cosmic aspect; buddhi signifies the psychological aspect of each individual. Synonymous of buddhi also known as virtue (dharma) knowledge (Jnana) equanimity (vairagya) and lordship (aishvarya) which is both eternal and non- eternal.

Samkhya system also describes the possibility of cosmic Ahamkara out of which individual subjects and objects arise. The concept of selfhood is not possible without an object. Impressions coming from the outer world give rise to Ahamkara and Mahat stands to Ahamkara as consciousness stands to self consciousness.

Manas is the organ which integrates sense data into percept and actions.

While prakriti is the only cause, some products are effects and some are both cause & effects. But the purpose is neither cause nor effect. Beginning and end are determined and the process of development is only the unfolding of what has already existence.

Space and Time:

                      According to samkhya theory cosmic process is twofold in nature, creation or unfolding of the different orders of prakriti and destruction or the dissolution of them into original prakriti.

Though prakriti is one and only which is common to all purusas, its manifestations may take varied ways to the souls in bondages from subtlest to grossest.

PURUSAS:

                 The lives of individual physical organizations imbed the life of soul and purusas are freed from all the accidents of finite life and lifted above time and change. From epistemology point of view subjects are one part of the reality and objects are another part and their relationship is known as experience. Samkhya considers the knower as Purusa and known as Prakriti.

To describe the existence of purusas samkhya suggests that aggregate of things must exist for the sake of another. The striving for liberation and escape from the conditions of existence is purusa. Purusa’s nature as unfailing light does not change (S.P.S., i-146)

It is present in dreamless sleep as well as in states of waking and dreaming, which are all modifications of buddhi (S.P.S, i-148, S.P.B., i-148). So purusa exists, though it is neither cause nor effect.

Pleasure and pain belong to the buddhi (S.P.S, vi-11) purusa is incapable of movement and on attaining release it does not go anywhere (S.P.S., I.49, S.K.3). It is not of limited size, since then it would be made up of parts and so be destructive (i.p.50).

Purusa of samkhya is also related to conception of Atman in Upanishads. Purusa is unrelated to prakriti (Brahma Upanishad IV 3-15). It is mere witness, a solitary, indifferent and passive spectator. (Samkhya Karika 19).

Prakriti and Purusa:

                 Prakriti evolves through various ups and downs which are not a result of conscious reflection and the presence of purusa excites prakriti to movement and development. Prakriti in itself is behind but its unity with purusa produced varieties in the world.

    We can understand the relation of purusa and prakriti. In samkhya Karika Gaudapada says” As a lame man and a blind man deserted by their fellow traveler, who in making their way with difficulty through a forest, had been dispersed by robbers, and happening to encounter each other, and entering into conversation so as to inspire mutual confidences, agree to divide between them duties of walking and seeing. Accordingly the lame man was mounted on blind man’s shoulders and was thus carried on his journey, whilst the blind man was enabled to pursue his root by the directions of his companion. In the same manner the faculty of seeing is in the soul, though not that of moving it is like the lame man, the faculty of moving is in the prakriti but not of seeing, which resembles therefore the blind man. Further as a separation takes place between the lame man and the blind man, when their mutual object is accomplished and when they have reached the end of journey, so prakriti having effected the liberation of purusa, causes to act and purusa having contemplated prakriti obtains freedom and so their respective purpose being affected, the connection between them dissolved (Bhasya or Karika p.21).

Jainism:

Jaina theory describe five kind of knowledge, a) first is Mati or ordinary cognition which includes Smriti or knowledge and Samjna or recognition.

b) Sruti- it is knowledge derived through description of signs and symbols.

c) Avadhi- It is knowledge even from distance of a time and space sometimes similar to clairvoyance.

d) Mananparyay is direct knowledge of thoughts of others which is similar to telepathy.

e) Kevala or Perfect knowledge- It is omniscient knowledge that comprehends everything which can’t be described through senses.

              When soul is uninterrupted by passion, emotions and influences of matter knowledge acquires the function of omniscience or knowledge of past, present and future.

                     According to Jainism knowledge is of two forums, Pramana or knowledge of thing as it is in itself and Naya or knowledge of things in its relation. Naya or standpoints is central feature of Jain logic which describes standpoints as a relativity factor or the conception that belongs to them, or partial views are the outcome of the purpose we pursue. Form positive psychology perspective with the perspective of Jain theory it is important to realize that to occupy one standpoint is not to deny the other standpoints. If we perceive truth as relative to our standpoints many of our dilemmas of existential nature could be solved.

Another feature of Jainism theory is called Syadvada, that all knowledge is only probable. Whenever we adopt certainly in our behavior in either or category result is momentary satisfaction. For the long term satisfaction one should perceive complex nature of reality and its indefiniteness. Every proposition is true or false under certain conditions that means Jainism talks of openness of possibilities of the same situation. Jainism also talks about the hypothesis of an absolute and describe that things are one in their universal aspect (Karan) and many in their participation aspect (Karya). Subjects and objects are not separate existence rather these are unity in duality or duality in unity and if we suppress either of them the whole is dissolved.

The concept of time has also been narrated in a transcendental nature. Time has been described in two types one is called eternal without form or magnitude and another as relative with beginning and end. Time without magnitude is Kala and relative time is called Samaya. Time is represented as Wheel or Chakra.

The way to Nirvana lies in upgrading the morality standard. Three jewels prescribed by Jainism (Triratna) faith in Jiva, knowledge of his doctrine and perfect conduct are the ways to achieve nirvana. Believing in the reality of existence is considered as right faith, knowledge without don lit is considered as right knowledge and attitude of neutrality without desire and attachment to the eternal world is called right conduct.

Virtue prescribed by Jainism consists of Innocence (Ahimsa), Charity, honorable conduct, Chastity and Renunciation of worldly interests. That means to achieve salvation one should follow this principle of virtuous life which is also highlighted in positive psychology.

Ethical standards highlighted in Jainism emphasize patience, discipline and ahimsa as highest good.

Taoism:

The activity of conscious mind creates variety of objections stopping our spontaneous fantasy activity in spite of real insight. We are so much accustomed to classify or aestheticize our conscious efforts that we rarely allow a new attitude that is supposedly irrational. If we don’t allow reversal of realities of natural type enlargement and enrichment of personality will not take place. The higher stages of consciousness can only be achieved by means of integrity.

“The suletlest secret of the Tao is human nature’s life.”

Light of heaven symbolical equivalent of consciousness is expressed by analogies with light.

Intensification of consciousness is necessary to acquire the true self. Separation of consciousness with unconsciousness will lead to uprooting of consciousness and the realization of Tao depends upon reunion with the unconscious laws of our being.

The golden flower is the light, and the light of heaven is the Tao.

Darkness gives birth to light.

According to Hui Ming Ching the “germinal vesicle” is the dragon castle at the bottom of the sea on the “kingdom of greatest joy.” Many of the earlier gods developed from “persons” into personified ideas and finally into abstract ideas.

Exploring the Role of Spirituality on the Work Efficiency of Individuals: An Inside Perspective from Srimad Bhagavad Gita

Exploring the Role of Spirituality on the Work Efficiency of Individuals: An Inside Perspective from Srimad Bhagavad Gita

Dr. Navin Kumar

Associate professor in psychology

Bhim Rao Ambedkar College

University of Delhi

navinbrac@yahoo.co.in

Abstract

This paper explores the teachings of Bhagavadgita as applicable to the field of Organizational Behavior. Bhagavadgita is not just a sacred Indian text but it also teaches how to tackle life’s problems in a unique way. Also, it can be considered as one of the best textbooks for learning organizational functioning. The doctrine of Karma Yoga proposed by the Bhagavadgita gives valuable directions to managers and employees to maximize their productivity for the betterment of the organization. Since India has a culture that is significantly different from that of the western countries, following the teachings of this text is more apt for the Indian organizational set up. This paper attempts to explore the various theories given by the Gita for management and employee behavior. Also, efforts have been made to explore how these theories and concepts are associated with the western literature.

Introduction

The concept of spirituality has been discussed in explored both in the religious as well as academic circles since decades. It has been only recently discovered that spirituality has a role to play not only in the personal life of an individual but in the professional life as well. Although spirituality is an individual phenomenon, spirituality in the workplace is generally discussed in terms of organizational attributes such as corporate values, facilitating connectedness among employees and an experience of transcendence through the work process. The Bhagavad Gita, an ancient Indian spiritual text, covers all modern management concepts of vision, leadership, motivation, excellence in work, achieving goals, giving work meaning, decision making and planning with one main difference. While Western theories of management deal with problems at material, external and peripheral levels, the Gita tackles issues from a grass root level of human thinking. The Gita focuses on dedication to work, and work commitment, motivation through inspiration and self-transcendence, a work culture and ethic that is divine, sincere and based on ‘dharma’, and not focused only on external reward. Service and general welfare are also important aspects of work according to the Gita. The Gita also prescribes sound mental health for managers, primarily inner peace and well being.

Employee efficiency in an organization

Researchers in the past few years have tried to identify the factors that make an employee efficient at workplace. Kahn was one of the pioneers in formulating a concept known as “Employee Engagement”. Kahn (1990) defined employee engagement as “the harnessing of organization members’ selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performances”. The cognitive aspect of employee engagement concerns employees’ beliefs about the organization, its leaders and working conditions. The emotional aspect concerns how employees feel about each of those three factors and whether they have positive or negative attitudes toward the organization and its leaders. The physical aspect of employee engagement concerns the physical energies exerted by individuals to accomplish their roles. Thus, according to Kahn (1990), engagement means to be psychologically as well as physically present when occupying and performing an organizational role.

Employee engagement is the level of commitment and involvement an employee has towards the organization and its values. There is still an ongoing debate about what this construct is composed of. Engagement is most closely associated with the constructs of job involvement (Brown, 1996) and flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Job involvement refers to the degree to which the job situation is central to the person and his or her identity (Lawler & Hall, 1970). “Flow” can be understood as the “holistic sensation that people feel when they act with total involvement” (Csikszentmihaly, 1975). It has been put forth that individuals in a flow experience do not need external rewards or goals for motivation, since the activity itself acts as challenging.  

Whether employee engagement is “produced” at the workplace or whether it is “brought” to the workplace is still a bone of contention among organizational psychologists. However, it is believed that individual differences impact the ability to engage or disengage in the role performance to a large extent. Kahn (1990) stated that people engage differently in response to their experiences of psychological meaningfulness, safety and availability in specific situations (Kahn, 1990). Another perspective is that an individual’s perception plays a major role in determining the level of engagement or disengagement (Robinson, 2006). According to Robinson (2006), individuals categorize and make sense of events and situations according to their own unique and personal frame of reference, which reflects their personality, past experiences, knowledge, expectations and current needs, priorities and interests (Robinson, 2006). Others argue that employee engagement is related to emotional experiences and well being (May et al., 2004).

Consequences of employee engagement have been seen to be positive for the organization. Organizations with high employee engagement levels tend to be more productive and more profitable. A meta analysis conducted by Harter el al (2002) led to the conclusion that employee engagement and satisfaction were related to positive business outcome at a large scale. There is a growing body of evidence that demonstrates the importance of employee engagement to organizational performance. A recent summary paper by Rayton (2012) showed that employee engagement is positively linked to organizational productivity and performance, customer satisfaction, innovation, employee wellbeing and low absenteeism, and retention (Rayton, 2012). It is argued that employees who are engaged with their job and employer are more productive because they are motivated beyond personal factors. They work more efficiently and with the success of the organization in mind.  

Work Culture in India

Sinha (1990) defines work culture as the “totality of the various levels of interacting forces around the focal concern of work”. Work culture means work related activities in the framework of norms and values regarding work (J.B.P.Sinha, 1990). The traditional Indian approach is quite different from the Western views. In the West, work is regarded as a means of earning livelihood. On the other hand, Indian approach views work as a form of duty, an obligation that one has towards the self as well as towards others. It is believed that Hindu religious values promote a passive, inwards-directed, and fatalistic attitude towards life which discourages individuals from the pursuit of economic activities (D. Sinha, 1988).

However, the work situation is India is not so ideal. Work values rooted in the psychospiritual tradition do not appear to be functional in the organizational setup. It seems that work is performed for one’s own (apna) and must be heavily compensated if performed for others (J.B.P.Sinha, 1985). Also, work is seen not as a duty but as favor done to others (McClelland, 1975) and is performed half heartedly.

Scholars are of the opinion that work is not inherently valued in India. J.B.P.Sinha (1985) observed that work as a concept and culture has not been internalized by Indian organizations. Referring to Indian work culture as “aram culture”, Sinha (1990) states that Indians have an attitude of not working diligently or the preference for taking rest and relaxing without doing any hard work. Indian employees have a “chalta hai” attitude where even imperfections or poor quality will do. In the “soft work culture” in Indian organizations, work is often neglected and employment orientation is exploited by overmanning which leads to social loafing. Due to the existence of caste system in India, maintaining relationships rather than performing socially neutral economic activities is preferred (J.B.P.Sinha, 1990).

J.B.P.Sinha and Sinha (1990) observed that when job demands get compromised with the socio cultural factors, the work culture of the organization is severely affected. However, a synergetic work culture where workers and managers work together for higher productivity and greater viability could be useful. They concluded that the critical factor which made the difference was establishing work as the master value (J.B.P.Sinha & Sinha, 1990).       

Workplace Stress

Stress in organizations is becoming an increasingly important concern in both academic research and organizational practices. Organizational stress can be referred to as a condition when organizational demands exceed organizational capability. Work stress is recognized worldwide as a major challenge to employees’ health and the healthiness of their organizations (ILO 1986; 1992). Employees who are stressed are also more likely to be unhealthy, poorly motivated, less productive and less safe at work. Consequently, their organizations are less likely to be successful in a competitive market.

Work related stress is the response people may have when presented with work demands and pressures that are not matched to their knowledge and abilities, and which challenge their ability to cope. The experience of organizational stress can cause unusual and dysfunctional behavior at work and contribute to poor physical and mental health. This further affects their work efficiency thus making the organization ill or dysfunctional.

What is spirituality?

Various scholars have tried to define what spirituality is but haven’t been able to reach at a general consensus. Three views on spirituality have been described by Krishnakumar and Neck (2002). Inrinsic view suggests spirituality as originating from inside the individual (Moore & Casper, 2006). Religious view regards spirituality as linked to one’s religious association such that religion and spirituality go hand in hand (Sheldrake, 2007). An existentialist view is concerned with finding meaning and purpose in work (Neck & Milliman, 1994). This perspective defines spirituality as an expression of our desires to find meaning and purpose in life. Enabling the expression of human experience at its deepest, most spiritual level may not only reduce stress, conflict, and absenteeism, but also enhance work performance (Krahnke et al.,2003), employee well-being, and quality of life (Karakas, 2010).

The terms organization and spirituality have generally in the past been seen to refer to very different and even opposed worldviews. Even then, researchers have been attempting to integrate the two concepts in order to create a more fulfilling and productive work environment. Spirituality is believed to be a multifaceted construct that is about finding a connection to something meaningful that transcends our ordinary lives (Mitroff and Denton 1999). Workplace spirituality is meaningful at both the individual and the organizational levels. At the individual level, spirituality can be seen as an affective and cognitive experience where an employee feels and believes in a spiritual connection to work and the work place. At the organizational level, spirituality can be seen as a reflection of spiritual values that is part of the organization’s culture. Harrington et al. (2001) suggested that the more congruent employees' values and spiritual aspirations are with the organization, the greater the possibility that employees will find true meaning at work.

Work and Duty : A perspective from the Bhagavadgita

Bhagavadgita is believed to be one of the greatest spiritual texts in the world. Its teachings are as relevant today as they were hundreds of years ago. It is based upon Lord Krishna’s teachings to Arjuna during the battle of Kurukshetra. These teachings were not only pertinent in the battleground but also can be applied to an individual’s daily life. Further application of the Bhagavadgita teachings can be in the field of organizational behavior.

The crux of Bhagavadgita lies in the concept of Karma which translates into English as duty. The concept of Karma first appears in the Bhagavadgita in verse 2.39 as karmabandham which means bondage resulting from an action. It states that any kind of action will result in bondage except when it is done with balance or samata. Lord Krishna instructed Arjuna to follow a path of desireless action or niskama karma. Verse 2.47 contains this essential principle of disinterestedness.

(2.47) To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction. (Radhakrishnan, 1993)

This verse means that one only has the right to perform one’s duties but not over the fruits of those activities. One should not work with a desire for the fruits of one’s actions. Neither can one stop doing the duty since the fruit is not to be desired. Bhagavadgita here defines the purpose of work- work is to be performed for its own sake, not for its outcomes, and yet this should not demotivate one to become inactive (Bhawuk, 2011).

Verse 2.48 explains how to perform one’s work.

(2.48) Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Arjuna, abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga. (Radhakrishnan, 1993)

It is stated in this verse that all work is to be performed without any attachment, and with indifference towards success or failure. One needs to be calm and composed while doing the duties without worrying for the results.

Bhagavadgita teaches that all actions are to be considered as duty. When one performs an action as a duty, it leads to the disappearance of egocentricism and towards a sense of surrender. Duty is a means of developing detachment, of accepting what comes of performing actions without regrets about the past or anxiety regarding the future (Lepes, 2008).

Niskama Karma or Desireless Action

The doctrine of Niskama Karma is deeply embedded in the Bhagavadgita. It proposes that one should not chase the fruits of one’s endeavors in one’s own interest. It is a state where one is unaffected by work. A living being cannot survive without doing karma. A task as simple as standing or breathing counts as karma. The key here is detachment. That is, performing one’s action as a duty. What is demanded is not renunciation of work, but renunciation of selfish desire. Verses 3.17 and 3.18 explain the conditions in which work does not lead to bondage.

(3.17) But the man whose delight is in the Self alone, who is content with the Self, who is satisfied with the Self, for him there exists no work that needs to be done.

(3.18) Similarly, in this world he has no interest whatever to gain by actions that he has done and none to be gained by the actions that he has not done. He does not depend on all these beings for any interest of his. (Radhakrishnan, 1993)

A person who finds the Self pleasurable, and is satisfied with the self, for him there exists no work that needs to be done. He is freed from a sense of duty and all tasks are performed spontaneously. Such a person has no quid pro quo relationship with anybody, and such a person has no purpose in doing or not doing a task (Bhawuk, 2011). Thus, work done without attachment is superior to all and helps an individual to attain purity of mind leading to a spiritual evolution. This kind of work is likely done to serve others and provides the individual with happiness and contentment.

Bhagavadgita on Work Efficiency

Western literature lays more emphasis on working smart rather than working hard. Bhagavadgita, however, suggests a different approach. It supports hard work. An individual must work hard enough to do a job. But, the hard work must not be focused towards the outcome. The individual should neither covet nor worry about the expected outcomes of the work. By doing so, work becomes pleasurable and the individual doesn’t get stressed out.

Bhagavadgita encourages one to work hard and to treat work with the same dedication that one has towards the lord. An individual must maintain a balance between work and other aspects of life. In addition, he or she should attain a mastery over his or her work. Mastery over work and balance in action when combined form the definition of yoga.  Attaining mastery is a difficult process. However, when one achieves it, the task becomes less stressful. Mastery of tasks make the individual perform at his highest level with the least amount of stress. This occurs because mastery of the skill leads the behavior to become habitual and therefore effortless. This has been referred to as the peak experience or flow in the western psychological literature (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

Verse 3.35 urges an individual to stick to his dharma.

(3.35) Better in one’s own law though imperfectly carried out than the law of another carried out perfectly. Better is death in the fulfillment of one’s own law for to follow another’s law is perilous. (Radhakrishnan, 1993)

It states that one must perform one’s dharma however unpleasant it may seem. However distasteful one’s duty may be, one must be faithful to it. A person’s work is considered his or her highest duty or dharma. As dharma is defined as something that supports a person, karma becomes the modus operandi of dharma in sustaining oneself in daily living (Bhawuk, 2011). It means that even if one does not enjoy one’s work, one must not lose faith and should keep on doing the work for this acts as a means to attain spiritual elevation.

One is suggested to work as hard as possible without chasing the fruits of the efforts employed. In this way, niskama karma becomes a path of spiritual self development. Thus, according to Bhagavadgita, work is to be performed for its own sake and not for its outcomes, and yet such a mindset should motivate one not to withdraw from action (Bhawuk, 2011). When work is performed in this manner, that is, with a balanced mind, one achieves excellence in his or her performance and is able to reach his or her life’s goals.

India is described as collectivistic in its cultural orientation (J.B.P.Sinha et al., 1994; Triandis et al., 1986). Groups formed on the basis of a neighborhood, kinship or function serve many interests and values. To function efficiently at workplace an individual needs to feel a sense of interconnectedness with the organization as well as fellow employees. Interconnectedness refers to deep connections or relationships with others which promotes positive emotions and creates a positive work environment. Bhagavadgita gives a social message of Loksangrah which is useful in facilitating interconnectedness. Loksangrah “stands for the unity of the world and the interconnectedness of society” (Radhakrishnan, 1970). Traditional social support institutions have been replaced by work organizations (Bell & Taylor, 2001), so interconnectedness within the organization is even more relevant.

Bhagavadgita supports the philosophy of “survival of all” rather than the Darwinian concept of “survival of the fittest”. This can be done by promoting the idea of selfless service and concern for welfare of all among the employees (sarvabhutahite ratah) and also by encouraging employees to maintain the same attitude towards all the fellow employees (samah sarvesu bhutesu).

Transcendence of self occurs when employees perceive their work and workplace as greater than self. Thus, work is carried out as a divine offering to the supreme (Rozuel & Kakabadse, 2010). Bhagavadgita advocates transcendence of the self by moving beyond the three gunas of sattva, rajas and tamas. 

 What are the facets of human functioning according to Gita?

The theory of Triguna has been explained in the Bhagavadgita to describe an individual. Triguna or the three gunas are the ‘primary constituents of nature and are the bases of all substances. They cannot therefore be said to be qualities inhering in these substances’ (Radhakrishnan, 1993). The three gunas are Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas. Each individual is ruled by a primary guna, which determines their motivation, character, life’s purpose, happiness or suffering as well as the degree of evolution. By assessing and observing the workings of the gunas, an individual can gradually move from tamas to rajas and then to Sattva and later towards detachment. Whenever detachment occurs, an individual enters a higher state of being, which influences his or her actions (Lepes, 2008).     

Sattva guna is the spiritual quality. Individuals with predominantly Sattva guna have an inherent desire to be good and caring. The mind and senses are more balanced in such individuals. A satvik person is able to realize the difference between dutiful and undutiful action. Such an individual does his or her work as a duty. All actions are performed with calm understanding and the person is free from doubts (Srivastava, 2012).

Rajas guna is the active quality. This guna gives rise to passion and desire. An individual with predominantly rajasic guna is restless and greedy. He or she longs for the fruits of action. Due to dominance of self interest, such an individual is often unable to differentiate between right and wrong. Enthusiasm, interest, and activity are some of the attributes of this guna (Srivastava, 2012).

Tamas guna is the material quality. The tamas nature is dull and inert, generally having a confused mind. Such individuals are passive and their whole lives are one continuous submission to environment (Radhakrishnan, 1993). When tamasic guna is dominant, a person derives happiness from delusions and miscomprehension. Such individuals express attachments to possessions and self centered tendencies (Srivastava, 2012).     

Trigunas and Work Efficiency

Triguna theory can be applied to an organizational setup in order to understand employee behavior. The type of guna predominant in an individual is responsible for the way he or she responds to the challenges at work. Gunas determine ones desires, thoughts, and behavior. When our desires are filled with affection and goodwill, our thoughts, words, and actions will create a positive environment. Similarly, thoughts of ill will, jealousy and competitiveness will consequently create a negative environment. It is important to note that one’s gunas not only affect oneself but the environment as well. A positive work environment is necessary because a conflicted and hostile atmosphere is filled with stress, agitation and unhappiness. However, an atmosphere where goodwill prevails can induce peacefulness and harmony in spite of disagreements (Lepes, 2008).  

Individuals with predominantly satvik nature are hard workers. They understand their duties and toil hard. Such individuals do not worry about the outcome of the task at hand. They are more concerned about finishing the tasks assigned to them while being completely unconcerned about the results. With satvik tendencies as dominant, an individual feels it is his or her duty to perform under any circumstances. Such an individual has a calm and serene mind, is alert and performs the job with precision (Kewalramani, 2013).

A rajasic person directs all his energy towards the pursuit of incessant activity. For such a person, the ego is the measure of all things. He expresses a constant need to compete and assert his power and prowess. He considers his ego centric behavior as necessary for survival. Such a coping strategy often results in stress and anxiety in the individual. When not working, such individuals keep themselves busy so that there is little time for reflection or relaxation. While working, such individuals are always in a hurry and most of their efforts are directed towards the achievement of rewards. Such individuals are often very successful at their job. However, they never really enjoy it as they somehow negate their inner self in the process (Lepes, 2008).

An individual with predominantly tamasik nature, work becomes a chore. A tamasic person is explosive, hostile and avoidant and lacks self reflection. He neither wants to learn nor work and is generally callous about his duties (Kewalramani, 2013). Most tamasic types feel more comfortable holding jobs where they are taken care of and little independent initiative is required. He has an unformed ego which makes him to latch on to others (Lepes, 2008).    

Bhagawad Gita : A Practical Approach

During the past few decades, Indian spiritual culture has been widely explored in order to gain insights into organizational behavior and managerial effectiveness. The psychospiritual approach is developmental in nature and requires employees to imbibe certain spiritual values. According to the Bhagavadgita, the goal of work should be spiritual advancement. Work should be perceived as duty rather than contractual in nature. According to Chakraborty (1987), self purification is the primary reason why an individual should work. Self purification refers to cleansing of one’s mind and intellect so that the true self shines through. The goal of self purification can be attained by simply following one’s own natural bent of work. Just like Arjuna, who was born to be a warrior, every individual has a natural tendency or attitude towards work, which must be utilized to fulfill obligations towards others. The pursuit of work according to the role in which one is placed is likely to contribute more effectively to the realization of the aim (Chakraborty, 1987).

Human behavior is governed by the three gunas. The most dominant guna has the strongest effect on one’s behavior at work and otherwise. Bhagavadgita says that every individual must strive to move upwards from the tamas guna to the rajas guna to the satva guna and later towards detachment. At this stage the individual would not feel any attachment towards his or her duties. In fact, he or she would continue doing their duties but without any desire for any rewards or recognition.

However, practicing Karma yoga can be a taxing process and can result in phenomenal depletion of energy as well as burnout. To counter this, Bhagavadgita advises the practice of sense control and equanimity. Sense control is a conscious mental hold on all the sense organs from participating in senseless indulgence, which if left unchecked affects the nervous system adds to the restlessness of mind and clouds judgment (Easwaran, 1999). Equanimity means being emotionally undeterred by the success or failure of one’s undertaking. A person of equanimity is disinterested in happiness as well as undisturbed by sadness (Rastogi & Pati, 2014).

A question arises as to how one can rise above the gunas and proceed towards detachment. Becoming predominantly a satvik person is not the goal but it is a step in the process of achieving detachment. Even a satvik person is bound to knowledge and happiness. As long as happiness is dependent on anything external to produce internal well being, liberation does not occur. Liberation or true happiness can be achieved if one is motivated towards evolving oneself and is concerned about the well being of all. Such an individual does his or her duties as an offering to the divine and not for any personal benefits. As surrender, devotion and compassion for all increases, the individual moves towards a state of detachment and bliss.

A rajasic person is self-centered which is a hindrance in the path of enlightenment. This could be understood as a way of coping with inner suffering. A rajasic type person unconsciously believes that his or her world will fall apart if they were made to face their inner fears. Constantly working is a means of shutting in these feelings. When such a person is forced to experience the inner sadness and suffering, he or she understands that it is nature’s way of making one grow and participate in life in a more meaningful way. With this realization comes a newly found freedom. With the acceptance of one’s feelings, the individual starts behaving more compassionately and becomes focused towards inner growth (Lepes, 2008).

Tamasic individuals have a very casual approach towards life and work in general. This attitude is not detachment but can be understood as a defense against anger, fear or excessive worry. Such individuals have a tendency to suppress their emotions by indulging in meaningless activities. However, if they learn to participate with the right efforts and connect with their inner essence rather than suppressing it, their ignorance begins to fade. This leads to a strengthening of a sense of purpose and belonging.

Therefore, any individual, be it satvik, rajsic or tamsic, can work on his or her inner self and move towards a state of detachment. Such individuals work diligently not only at their work place, but their efforts can also be observed in other spheres of life.

Contemporary Perspective

Despite the fact that the Bhagavad Gita is a text that is thousands of years old, its teachings hold relevance for every aspect of an organization. Not only are its teachings important at the organizational level, but also at the management and the employee levels. The available literature describes the concept of workplace spirituality which is quite similar to the views expressed in the Bhagavad Gita. Although there is no single definition of workplace spirituality, there is an emerging consensus that spirituality is a multifaceted construct that is about finding a connection to something meaningful that transcends our ordinary lives (eg., Mitroff & Denton, 1999). The idea is that when people fully engage in their work with a sense of purpose, they approach expressing their complete selves, including their spiritual selves.

Bhagavad Gita at the Organizational Level

Workplace Spirituality

Several attempts have been made by scholars to define the concept of Karma Yoga. Mulla and Krishnan (2009) defined karma yoga as comprising of duty orientation, absence of desire for rewards and equanimity. Later, Rastogi and Pati (2014) explained karma yoga as a persistent positive state of mind characterized by absorption and service consciousness. Absorption may be explained as a state of full concentration and complete engrossment in one’s work. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) defined it as “flow”, a state of optimal experience characterized by focused attention, clarity of mind, mind-body unison, effortless concentration, complete control, loss of self consciousness and intrinsic enjoyment (Csikszentmihaly, 1990). Self work immersion is one construct which shows empirical support as related to workplace spirituality. Bell and Taylor (2001) used the terms such as “holism” and “wholeness” to describe the concept of bringing one’s spiritual faculties to work. Dehler and Welsh (1994) discuss the concept of self-work immersion in terms of organizational development activities. Krahnke, Giacalone, and Jurkiewicz (2003), discuss this component as a framework of organizational values designed to support such aspects of spirituality.  

Service consciousness may be understood to originate from a deep conviction on the interconnectedness of various beings in the universe, that is, feeling of being part of something bigger than the self (Mitroff & Denton, 1999), and hence makes each person responsible for the welfare of others in a selfless manner. Bhagavad Gita describes this as loksangrah which refers to the welfare of all rather than the welfare of one individual. This is akin to the construct of interconnectedness in workplace spirituality. Interconnectedness is defined as a relationship with others that fosters positive feelings, according to Jurkiewicz and Giacalone (2004).

A third construct quite strongly related to workplace spirituality is self actualization. Burack (1999) defines self-actualization in the realm of spirituality as the meshing together of the mind via work. The full potential of an individual is developed through work at the self actualization level, according to King and Nicol (1999). Bhagavad Gita teaches an individual to practice karma yoga in order to achieve spiritual enlightenment. It means that through the path of karma yoga an individual can achieve his highest potential which is similar to the psychological concept of self actualization.

Leadership

Burns (1978) described two types of leadership, that is, transactional or transformational. Transactional leadership occurs when one person takes the initiative in making contact with others for the purpose of an exchange of valued things. Transformational leadership occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality. Transformational leaders not only recognize and exploit existing needs of potential followers, but also look for potential motives and higher needs in followers. In this way, they completely engage their followers and help them to achieve their fullest potential (Burns, 1978).

Bhagavad Gita provides leadership advice in a number of general areas (Rarick & Nickerson, 2008). First, a leader must be aware of his role and should be prepared to respond to the responsibilities imposed by their position. Being true to oneself and one’s values is an essential aspect according to Gita. Second, a leader must be both wise as well as proactive in his actions. Leaders are required to take tough decisions at times and presence of inner wisdom would guide them in making the correct decisions. Third, a leader must have the ability to sacrifice own interests over the interests of the group. The leader in the Gita is a humanistic leader who acts without self gain and who has great personal concern for followers. Fourth, a leader must possess qualities like fearlessness, righteousness, charity, self control, selfless service, compassion and perseverance in order to be a good leader (Rarick & Nickerson, 2008).

A transformational leader shows the qualities of a leader as expressed in the Gita. Such a leader motivates followers to go beyond their self interests (Bass, 1998a, 1999). Transformational leadership is the most desirable form of leadership since it can significantly enhance organizational effectiveness. Mulla and Krishnan (2010) demonstrated that karma yoga orientation of a leader enhances transformational leadership. Such leadership further enhances the karma yoga and spirituality of followers (Krishnan, 2007). Kejriwal and Krishnan (2004) also found that a belief in karma enhanced transformational leadership. In another study by Mulla and Krishnan (2012), karma yoga was conceptualized as an outcome of transformational leadership in the Indian context. The empirical findings suggested that transformational leadership enhanced followers’ duty orientation and indifference to rewards. This leads to a conclusion that when the leader practices karma yoga, it further affects the followers and enhances their karma yoga, which collectively benefits the organization. In another study, Mehra and Krishnan (2005) empirically tested the effect of svadharma orientation on transformational leadership and followers’ trust in the leader. It was found that svadharma orientation of the leader significantly enhanced transformational leadership. Under such leadership, followers find meaning and satisfaction transcending their self interests. They are also inspired to exert more efforts for enhanced performance and effectiveness. It is evident from these studies that when a leader engages in his duties as prescribed by the Bhagavad Gita, it not only affects him but also the followers who also engage in the practice of karma yoga. This has a cumulative effect on the organizational efficiency.

Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) can be defined as individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization (Organ, 1988). There have been a large number of behaviors which have been identified to be a part of organizational citizenship behavior. The categories of behavior which are closely related to the Bhagavad Gita philosophy are helping behavior, sportsmanship and civic virtue. Studies have found that OCB is an outcome of transformational leadership mediated by trust in their leaders (Podsakoff et al., 1990). Individuals who have a strong belief in the philosophy of karma feel a sense of relatedness with their colleagues. Being a part of an organization is considered as a duty which is to be fulfilled in order to achieve liberation.

Mulla and Krishnan (2012) found in their study that individuals who had a strong belief in Indian philosophy were also good citizens at the workplace. They were more likely to tolerate less than uncomfortable conditions at the workplace without complaining and were more likely to be proactive in preventing work related problems with others (Mulla and Krishnan, 2012). This supported a previous study by Zinnbauer et al (1997) according to which, people who considered themselves spiritual and religious were more likely to feel interconnected with others (group cohesion) and exhibit self sacrificing behavior (altruism). Madhu and Krishnan (2005) studied the effect of transformational leadership and leader’s Karma-Yoga on Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) of followers. The presence of both Karma-Yoga and transformational leadership together had an enhanced effect on altruism, conscientiousness, and courtesy. Another study by Mulla and Krishnan (2012) showed that transformational leadership enhances followers’ Karma-Yoga. Of the three dimensions of Karma-Yoga, it was found that transformational leadership enhances the duty-orientation of the followers and followers’ indifference to rewards. Biswas (2009) empirically analyzed the relationship between gunas and organizational citizenship behavior. It was found that satva guna was positively related to helping behavior and sportsmanship while rajas was positively related to civic virtue and helping behavior. Tamas was found to be negatively related to civic virtue. It is thus safe to assume that the type of guna predominant in an individual is a predictor of his or her work behavior.  

Bhagavad Gita at the Individual Level

Bhagavad Gita and well being

With the increasing importance and centrality of work in people’s life, problems such as stress, burnout and emotional issues have also increased. Research suggests that the more an individual engages in workplace spirituality, the lesser such problems emerge. It has been found that individuals who are involved in the pursuit of personally meaningful goals possess greater emotional well-being and better physical health than do persons who lack goal direction. Emmons (1999) reviewed seven studies that have reported a significant correlation between spirituality and mental health indices of life satisfaction, happiness, self esteem, hope and optimism, and meaning in life. There is growing evidence that suggests positive individual level outcomes for employees such as increased joy, serenity, job satisfaction and commitment (eg., Burack, 1999; Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003a; Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002).

Psychological isolation, alienation and lack of meaning at work is a common occurrence. Emmons (2003) reported that work takes on a new meaning and significance when it is seen as a calling,  a sacred duty, a service opportunity or a way to serve God, or a higher purpose. When work is seen as a calling, it becomes more meaningful and this increases productivity and commitment of employees (Reave, 2005).  

Bhagavad Gita preaches non attachment to the fruits of actions performed in the course of one’s duty. Work performance based on anticipated benefits suffers on account of the mental agitations caused by the anxieties of the future. Here, Gita tells us not to mortgage the present commitment to an uncertain future. This acts as a great approach towards energy conservation and a preventive method against stress and burnout in the work situations. Attaining the state of niskama karma prevents the ego and the mind from dissipation through speculation on future gains or losses (Satija, 2011). Krahnke, Giacalone, and Jurkiewicz (2003) found individual level outcomes such as increased physical and mental health of employees, advanced personal growth, and enhanced sense of self worth associated with workplace spirituality.

Interconnectedness

Workplaces have replaced local communities and social groups that establish a sense of connectedness. Spirituality at work provides employees a sense of community and connectedness. Workplace spirituality is linked to increased levels of employee attachment, loyalty and belongingness (Milliman et al., 1999). There is also considerable amount of research linking spirituality to consideration towards others at work (eg., Burack, 1999). Consideration towards others is further correlated with higher job satisfaction, low turnover, group cohesion, group performance, and group efficiency (Bass, 1990). 

The practice of interconnectedness or loksangrah is an important teaching from the Bhagavadgita. At the workplace, employees must work in tandem with his or her colleagues. Rejoicing in the welfare of fellow employees creates a positive work environment conducive to work. Treating all colleagues with equal respect and positive attitude further improves the workplace environment.

In a study conducted by Mulla and Krishnan (2012), it was found that individuals who strongly believe in the doctrine of karma, liberation and divinity of all, show a strong sense of relatedness with their work and their colleagues in the work environment. They believe that they are a part of a particular team, department or organization for a larger purpose, that is, to fulfill their past obligations. The only way in which one can achieve liberation is through the conscientious discharge of those past obligations. Such individuals were also more likely to tolerate less than uncomfortable conditions at workplace without complaining and were more likely to be proactive in preventing work related problems with others (Mulla & Krishnan, 2012). 

   

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