Exploring the Role of Spirituality on the Work Efficiency of Individuals: An Inside Perspective from Srimad Bhagavad Gita

Exploring the Role of Spirituality on the Work Efficiency of Individuals: An Inside Perspective from Srimad Bhagavad Gita

Dr. Navin Kumar

Associate professor in psychology

Bhim Rao Ambedkar College

University of Delhi

navinbrac@yahoo.co.in

Abstract

This paper explores the teachings of Bhagavadgita as applicable to the field of Organizational Behavior. Bhagavadgita is not just a sacred Indian text but it also teaches how to tackle life’s problems in a unique way. Also, it can be considered as one of the best textbooks for learning organizational functioning. The doctrine of Karma Yoga proposed by the Bhagavadgita gives valuable directions to managers and employees to maximize their productivity for the betterment of the organization. Since India has a culture that is significantly different from that of the western countries, following the teachings of this text is more apt for the Indian organizational set up. This paper attempts to explore the various theories given by the Gita for management and employee behavior. Also, efforts have been made to explore how these theories and concepts are associated with the western literature.

Introduction

The concept of spirituality has been discussed in explored both in the religious as well as academic circles since decades. It has been only recently discovered that spirituality has a role to play not only in the personal life of an individual but in the professional life as well. Although spirituality is an individual phenomenon, spirituality in the workplace is generally discussed in terms of organizational attributes such as corporate values, facilitating connectedness among employees and an experience of transcendence through the work process. The Bhagavad Gita, an ancient Indian spiritual text, covers all modern management concepts of vision, leadership, motivation, excellence in work, achieving goals, giving work meaning, decision making and planning with one main difference. While Western theories of management deal with problems at material, external and peripheral levels, the Gita tackles issues from a grass root level of human thinking. The Gita focuses on dedication to work, and work commitment, motivation through inspiration and self-transcendence, a work culture and ethic that is divine, sincere and based on ‘dharma’, and not focused only on external reward. Service and general welfare are also important aspects of work according to the Gita. The Gita also prescribes sound mental health for managers, primarily inner peace and well being.

Employee efficiency in an organization

Researchers in the past few years have tried to identify the factors that make an employee efficient at workplace. Kahn was one of the pioneers in formulating a concept known as “Employee Engagement”. Kahn (1990) defined employee engagement as “the harnessing of organization members’ selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performances”. The cognitive aspect of employee engagement concerns employees’ beliefs about the organization, its leaders and working conditions. The emotional aspect concerns how employees feel about each of those three factors and whether they have positive or negative attitudes toward the organization and its leaders. The physical aspect of employee engagement concerns the physical energies exerted by individuals to accomplish their roles. Thus, according to Kahn (1990), engagement means to be psychologically as well as physically present when occupying and performing an organizational role.

Employee engagement is the level of commitment and involvement an employee has towards the organization and its values. There is still an ongoing debate about what this construct is composed of. Engagement is most closely associated with the constructs of job involvement (Brown, 1996) and flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Job involvement refers to the degree to which the job situation is central to the person and his or her identity (Lawler & Hall, 1970). “Flow” can be understood as the “holistic sensation that people feel when they act with total involvement” (Csikszentmihaly, 1975). It has been put forth that individuals in a flow experience do not need external rewards or goals for motivation, since the activity itself acts as challenging.  

Whether employee engagement is “produced” at the workplace or whether it is “brought” to the workplace is still a bone of contention among organizational psychologists. However, it is believed that individual differences impact the ability to engage or disengage in the role performance to a large extent. Kahn (1990) stated that people engage differently in response to their experiences of psychological meaningfulness, safety and availability in specific situations (Kahn, 1990). Another perspective is that an individual’s perception plays a major role in determining the level of engagement or disengagement (Robinson, 2006). According to Robinson (2006), individuals categorize and make sense of events and situations according to their own unique and personal frame of reference, which reflects their personality, past experiences, knowledge, expectations and current needs, priorities and interests (Robinson, 2006). Others argue that employee engagement is related to emotional experiences and well being (May et al., 2004).

Consequences of employee engagement have been seen to be positive for the organization. Organizations with high employee engagement levels tend to be more productive and more profitable. A meta analysis conducted by Harter el al (2002) led to the conclusion that employee engagement and satisfaction were related to positive business outcome at a large scale. There is a growing body of evidence that demonstrates the importance of employee engagement to organizational performance. A recent summary paper by Rayton (2012) showed that employee engagement is positively linked to organizational productivity and performance, customer satisfaction, innovation, employee wellbeing and low absenteeism, and retention (Rayton, 2012). It is argued that employees who are engaged with their job and employer are more productive because they are motivated beyond personal factors. They work more efficiently and with the success of the organization in mind.  

Work Culture in India

Sinha (1990) defines work culture as the “totality of the various levels of interacting forces around the focal concern of work”. Work culture means work related activities in the framework of norms and values regarding work (J.B.P.Sinha, 1990). The traditional Indian approach is quite different from the Western views. In the West, work is regarded as a means of earning livelihood. On the other hand, Indian approach views work as a form of duty, an obligation that one has towards the self as well as towards others. It is believed that Hindu religious values promote a passive, inwards-directed, and fatalistic attitude towards life which discourages individuals from the pursuit of economic activities (D. Sinha, 1988).

However, the work situation is India is not so ideal. Work values rooted in the psychospiritual tradition do not appear to be functional in the organizational setup. It seems that work is performed for one’s own (apna) and must be heavily compensated if performed for others (J.B.P.Sinha, 1985). Also, work is seen not as a duty but as favor done to others (McClelland, 1975) and is performed half heartedly.

Scholars are of the opinion that work is not inherently valued in India. J.B.P.Sinha (1985) observed that work as a concept and culture has not been internalized by Indian organizations. Referring to Indian work culture as “aram culture”, Sinha (1990) states that Indians have an attitude of not working diligently or the preference for taking rest and relaxing without doing any hard work. Indian employees have a “chalta hai” attitude where even imperfections or poor quality will do. In the “soft work culture” in Indian organizations, work is often neglected and employment orientation is exploited by overmanning which leads to social loafing. Due to the existence of caste system in India, maintaining relationships rather than performing socially neutral economic activities is preferred (J.B.P.Sinha, 1990).

J.B.P.Sinha and Sinha (1990) observed that when job demands get compromised with the socio cultural factors, the work culture of the organization is severely affected. However, a synergetic work culture where workers and managers work together for higher productivity and greater viability could be useful. They concluded that the critical factor which made the difference was establishing work as the master value (J.B.P.Sinha & Sinha, 1990).       

Workplace Stress

Stress in organizations is becoming an increasingly important concern in both academic research and organizational practices. Organizational stress can be referred to as a condition when organizational demands exceed organizational capability. Work stress is recognized worldwide as a major challenge to employees’ health and the healthiness of their organizations (ILO 1986; 1992). Employees who are stressed are also more likely to be unhealthy, poorly motivated, less productive and less safe at work. Consequently, their organizations are less likely to be successful in a competitive market.

Work related stress is the response people may have when presented with work demands and pressures that are not matched to their knowledge and abilities, and which challenge their ability to cope. The experience of organizational stress can cause unusual and dysfunctional behavior at work and contribute to poor physical and mental health. This further affects their work efficiency thus making the organization ill or dysfunctional.

What is spirituality?

Various scholars have tried to define what spirituality is but haven’t been able to reach at a general consensus. Three views on spirituality have been described by Krishnakumar and Neck (2002). Inrinsic view suggests spirituality as originating from inside the individual (Moore & Casper, 2006). Religious view regards spirituality as linked to one’s religious association such that religion and spirituality go hand in hand (Sheldrake, 2007). An existentialist view is concerned with finding meaning and purpose in work (Neck & Milliman, 1994). This perspective defines spirituality as an expression of our desires to find meaning and purpose in life. Enabling the expression of human experience at its deepest, most spiritual level may not only reduce stress, conflict, and absenteeism, but also enhance work performance (Krahnke et al.,2003), employee well-being, and quality of life (Karakas, 2010).

The terms organization and spirituality have generally in the past been seen to refer to very different and even opposed worldviews. Even then, researchers have been attempting to integrate the two concepts in order to create a more fulfilling and productive work environment. Spirituality is believed to be a multifaceted construct that is about finding a connection to something meaningful that transcends our ordinary lives (Mitroff and Denton 1999). Workplace spirituality is meaningful at both the individual and the organizational levels. At the individual level, spirituality can be seen as an affective and cognitive experience where an employee feels and believes in a spiritual connection to work and the work place. At the organizational level, spirituality can be seen as a reflection of spiritual values that is part of the organization’s culture. Harrington et al. (2001) suggested that the more congruent employees' values and spiritual aspirations are with the organization, the greater the possibility that employees will find true meaning at work.

Work and Duty : A perspective from the Bhagavadgita

Bhagavadgita is believed to be one of the greatest spiritual texts in the world. Its teachings are as relevant today as they were hundreds of years ago. It is based upon Lord Krishna’s teachings to Arjuna during the battle of Kurukshetra. These teachings were not only pertinent in the battleground but also can be applied to an individual’s daily life. Further application of the Bhagavadgita teachings can be in the field of organizational behavior.

The crux of Bhagavadgita lies in the concept of Karma which translates into English as duty. The concept of Karma first appears in the Bhagavadgita in verse 2.39 as karmabandham which means bondage resulting from an action. It states that any kind of action will result in bondage except when it is done with balance or samata. Lord Krishna instructed Arjuna to follow a path of desireless action or niskama karma. Verse 2.47 contains this essential principle of disinterestedness.

(2.47) To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction. (Radhakrishnan, 1993)

This verse means that one only has the right to perform one’s duties but not over the fruits of those activities. One should not work with a desire for the fruits of one’s actions. Neither can one stop doing the duty since the fruit is not to be desired. Bhagavadgita here defines the purpose of work- work is to be performed for its own sake, not for its outcomes, and yet this should not demotivate one to become inactive (Bhawuk, 2011).

Verse 2.48 explains how to perform one’s work.

(2.48) Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Arjuna, abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga. (Radhakrishnan, 1993)

It is stated in this verse that all work is to be performed without any attachment, and with indifference towards success or failure. One needs to be calm and composed while doing the duties without worrying for the results.

Bhagavadgita teaches that all actions are to be considered as duty. When one performs an action as a duty, it leads to the disappearance of egocentricism and towards a sense of surrender. Duty is a means of developing detachment, of accepting what comes of performing actions without regrets about the past or anxiety regarding the future (Lepes, 2008).

Niskama Karma or Desireless Action

The doctrine of Niskama Karma is deeply embedded in the Bhagavadgita. It proposes that one should not chase the fruits of one’s endeavors in one’s own interest. It is a state where one is unaffected by work. A living being cannot survive without doing karma. A task as simple as standing or breathing counts as karma. The key here is detachment. That is, performing one’s action as a duty. What is demanded is not renunciation of work, but renunciation of selfish desire. Verses 3.17 and 3.18 explain the conditions in which work does not lead to bondage.

(3.17) But the man whose delight is in the Self alone, who is content with the Self, who is satisfied with the Self, for him there exists no work that needs to be done.

(3.18) Similarly, in this world he has no interest whatever to gain by actions that he has done and none to be gained by the actions that he has not done. He does not depend on all these beings for any interest of his. (Radhakrishnan, 1993)

A person who finds the Self pleasurable, and is satisfied with the self, for him there exists no work that needs to be done. He is freed from a sense of duty and all tasks are performed spontaneously. Such a person has no quid pro quo relationship with anybody, and such a person has no purpose in doing or not doing a task (Bhawuk, 2011). Thus, work done without attachment is superior to all and helps an individual to attain purity of mind leading to a spiritual evolution. This kind of work is likely done to serve others and provides the individual with happiness and contentment.

Bhagavadgita on Work Efficiency

Western literature lays more emphasis on working smart rather than working hard. Bhagavadgita, however, suggests a different approach. It supports hard work. An individual must work hard enough to do a job. But, the hard work must not be focused towards the outcome. The individual should neither covet nor worry about the expected outcomes of the work. By doing so, work becomes pleasurable and the individual doesn’t get stressed out.

Bhagavadgita encourages one to work hard and to treat work with the same dedication that one has towards the lord. An individual must maintain a balance between work and other aspects of life. In addition, he or she should attain a mastery over his or her work. Mastery over work and balance in action when combined form the definition of yoga.  Attaining mastery is a difficult process. However, when one achieves it, the task becomes less stressful. Mastery of tasks make the individual perform at his highest level with the least amount of stress. This occurs because mastery of the skill leads the behavior to become habitual and therefore effortless. This has been referred to as the peak experience or flow in the western psychological literature (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

Verse 3.35 urges an individual to stick to his dharma.

(3.35) Better in one’s own law though imperfectly carried out than the law of another carried out perfectly. Better is death in the fulfillment of one’s own law for to follow another’s law is perilous. (Radhakrishnan, 1993)

It states that one must perform one’s dharma however unpleasant it may seem. However distasteful one’s duty may be, one must be faithful to it. A person’s work is considered his or her highest duty or dharma. As dharma is defined as something that supports a person, karma becomes the modus operandi of dharma in sustaining oneself in daily living (Bhawuk, 2011). It means that even if one does not enjoy one’s work, one must not lose faith and should keep on doing the work for this acts as a means to attain spiritual elevation.

One is suggested to work as hard as possible without chasing the fruits of the efforts employed. In this way, niskama karma becomes a path of spiritual self development. Thus, according to Bhagavadgita, work is to be performed for its own sake and not for its outcomes, and yet such a mindset should motivate one not to withdraw from action (Bhawuk, 2011). When work is performed in this manner, that is, with a balanced mind, one achieves excellence in his or her performance and is able to reach his or her life’s goals.

India is described as collectivistic in its cultural orientation (J.B.P.Sinha et al., 1994; Triandis et al., 1986). Groups formed on the basis of a neighborhood, kinship or function serve many interests and values. To function efficiently at workplace an individual needs to feel a sense of interconnectedness with the organization as well as fellow employees. Interconnectedness refers to deep connections or relationships with others which promotes positive emotions and creates a positive work environment. Bhagavadgita gives a social message of Loksangrah which is useful in facilitating interconnectedness. Loksangrah “stands for the unity of the world and the interconnectedness of society” (Radhakrishnan, 1970). Traditional social support institutions have been replaced by work organizations (Bell & Taylor, 2001), so interconnectedness within the organization is even more relevant.

Bhagavadgita supports the philosophy of “survival of all” rather than the Darwinian concept of “survival of the fittest”. This can be done by promoting the idea of selfless service and concern for welfare of all among the employees (sarvabhutahite ratah) and also by encouraging employees to maintain the same attitude towards all the fellow employees (samah sarvesu bhutesu).

Transcendence of self occurs when employees perceive their work and workplace as greater than self. Thus, work is carried out as a divine offering to the supreme (Rozuel & Kakabadse, 2010). Bhagavadgita advocates transcendence of the self by moving beyond the three gunas of sattva, rajas and tamas. 

 What are the facets of human functioning according to Gita?

The theory of Triguna has been explained in the Bhagavadgita to describe an individual. Triguna or the three gunas are the ‘primary constituents of nature and are the bases of all substances. They cannot therefore be said to be qualities inhering in these substances’ (Radhakrishnan, 1993). The three gunas are Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas. Each individual is ruled by a primary guna, which determines their motivation, character, life’s purpose, happiness or suffering as well as the degree of evolution. By assessing and observing the workings of the gunas, an individual can gradually move from tamas to rajas and then to Sattva and later towards detachment. Whenever detachment occurs, an individual enters a higher state of being, which influences his or her actions (Lepes, 2008).     

Sattva guna is the spiritual quality. Individuals with predominantly Sattva guna have an inherent desire to be good and caring. The mind and senses are more balanced in such individuals. A satvik person is able to realize the difference between dutiful and undutiful action. Such an individual does his or her work as a duty. All actions are performed with calm understanding and the person is free from doubts (Srivastava, 2012).

Rajas guna is the active quality. This guna gives rise to passion and desire. An individual with predominantly rajasic guna is restless and greedy. He or she longs for the fruits of action. Due to dominance of self interest, such an individual is often unable to differentiate between right and wrong. Enthusiasm, interest, and activity are some of the attributes of this guna (Srivastava, 2012).

Tamas guna is the material quality. The tamas nature is dull and inert, generally having a confused mind. Such individuals are passive and their whole lives are one continuous submission to environment (Radhakrishnan, 1993). When tamasic guna is dominant, a person derives happiness from delusions and miscomprehension. Such individuals express attachments to possessions and self centered tendencies (Srivastava, 2012).     

Trigunas and Work Efficiency

Triguna theory can be applied to an organizational setup in order to understand employee behavior. The type of guna predominant in an individual is responsible for the way he or she responds to the challenges at work. Gunas determine ones desires, thoughts, and behavior. When our desires are filled with affection and goodwill, our thoughts, words, and actions will create a positive environment. Similarly, thoughts of ill will, jealousy and competitiveness will consequently create a negative environment. It is important to note that one’s gunas not only affect oneself but the environment as well. A positive work environment is necessary because a conflicted and hostile atmosphere is filled with stress, agitation and unhappiness. However, an atmosphere where goodwill prevails can induce peacefulness and harmony in spite of disagreements (Lepes, 2008).  

Individuals with predominantly satvik nature are hard workers. They understand their duties and toil hard. Such individuals do not worry about the outcome of the task at hand. They are more concerned about finishing the tasks assigned to them while being completely unconcerned about the results. With satvik tendencies as dominant, an individual feels it is his or her duty to perform under any circumstances. Such an individual has a calm and serene mind, is alert and performs the job with precision (Kewalramani, 2013).

A rajasic person directs all his energy towards the pursuit of incessant activity. For such a person, the ego is the measure of all things. He expresses a constant need to compete and assert his power and prowess. He considers his ego centric behavior as necessary for survival. Such a coping strategy often results in stress and anxiety in the individual. When not working, such individuals keep themselves busy so that there is little time for reflection or relaxation. While working, such individuals are always in a hurry and most of their efforts are directed towards the achievement of rewards. Such individuals are often very successful at their job. However, they never really enjoy it as they somehow negate their inner self in the process (Lepes, 2008).

An individual with predominantly tamasik nature, work becomes a chore. A tamasic person is explosive, hostile and avoidant and lacks self reflection. He neither wants to learn nor work and is generally callous about his duties (Kewalramani, 2013). Most tamasic types feel more comfortable holding jobs where they are taken care of and little independent initiative is required. He has an unformed ego which makes him to latch on to others (Lepes, 2008).    

Bhagawad Gita : A Practical Approach

During the past few decades, Indian spiritual culture has been widely explored in order to gain insights into organizational behavior and managerial effectiveness. The psychospiritual approach is developmental in nature and requires employees to imbibe certain spiritual values. According to the Bhagavadgita, the goal of work should be spiritual advancement. Work should be perceived as duty rather than contractual in nature. According to Chakraborty (1987), self purification is the primary reason why an individual should work. Self purification refers to cleansing of one’s mind and intellect so that the true self shines through. The goal of self purification can be attained by simply following one’s own natural bent of work. Just like Arjuna, who was born to be a warrior, every individual has a natural tendency or attitude towards work, which must be utilized to fulfill obligations towards others. The pursuit of work according to the role in which one is placed is likely to contribute more effectively to the realization of the aim (Chakraborty, 1987).

Human behavior is governed by the three gunas. The most dominant guna has the strongest effect on one’s behavior at work and otherwise. Bhagavadgita says that every individual must strive to move upwards from the tamas guna to the rajas guna to the satva guna and later towards detachment. At this stage the individual would not feel any attachment towards his or her duties. In fact, he or she would continue doing their duties but without any desire for any rewards or recognition.

However, practicing Karma yoga can be a taxing process and can result in phenomenal depletion of energy as well as burnout. To counter this, Bhagavadgita advises the practice of sense control and equanimity. Sense control is a conscious mental hold on all the sense organs from participating in senseless indulgence, which if left unchecked affects the nervous system adds to the restlessness of mind and clouds judgment (Easwaran, 1999). Equanimity means being emotionally undeterred by the success or failure of one’s undertaking. A person of equanimity is disinterested in happiness as well as undisturbed by sadness (Rastogi & Pati, 2014).

A question arises as to how one can rise above the gunas and proceed towards detachment. Becoming predominantly a satvik person is not the goal but it is a step in the process of achieving detachment. Even a satvik person is bound to knowledge and happiness. As long as happiness is dependent on anything external to produce internal well being, liberation does not occur. Liberation or true happiness can be achieved if one is motivated towards evolving oneself and is concerned about the well being of all. Such an individual does his or her duties as an offering to the divine and not for any personal benefits. As surrender, devotion and compassion for all increases, the individual moves towards a state of detachment and bliss.

A rajasic person is self-centered which is a hindrance in the path of enlightenment. This could be understood as a way of coping with inner suffering. A rajasic type person unconsciously believes that his or her world will fall apart if they were made to face their inner fears. Constantly working is a means of shutting in these feelings. When such a person is forced to experience the inner sadness and suffering, he or she understands that it is nature’s way of making one grow and participate in life in a more meaningful way. With this realization comes a newly found freedom. With the acceptance of one’s feelings, the individual starts behaving more compassionately and becomes focused towards inner growth (Lepes, 2008).

Tamasic individuals have a very casual approach towards life and work in general. This attitude is not detachment but can be understood as a defense against anger, fear or excessive worry. Such individuals have a tendency to suppress their emotions by indulging in meaningless activities. However, if they learn to participate with the right efforts and connect with their inner essence rather than suppressing it, their ignorance begins to fade. This leads to a strengthening of a sense of purpose and belonging.

Therefore, any individual, be it satvik, rajsic or tamsic, can work on his or her inner self and move towards a state of detachment. Such individuals work diligently not only at their work place, but their efforts can also be observed in other spheres of life.

Contemporary Perspective

Despite the fact that the Bhagavad Gita is a text that is thousands of years old, its teachings hold relevance for every aspect of an organization. Not only are its teachings important at the organizational level, but also at the management and the employee levels. The available literature describes the concept of workplace spirituality which is quite similar to the views expressed in the Bhagavad Gita. Although there is no single definition of workplace spirituality, there is an emerging consensus that spirituality is a multifaceted construct that is about finding a connection to something meaningful that transcends our ordinary lives (eg., Mitroff & Denton, 1999). The idea is that when people fully engage in their work with a sense of purpose, they approach expressing their complete selves, including their spiritual selves.

Bhagavad Gita at the Organizational Level

Workplace Spirituality

Several attempts have been made by scholars to define the concept of Karma Yoga. Mulla and Krishnan (2009) defined karma yoga as comprising of duty orientation, absence of desire for rewards and equanimity. Later, Rastogi and Pati (2014) explained karma yoga as a persistent positive state of mind characterized by absorption and service consciousness. Absorption may be explained as a state of full concentration and complete engrossment in one’s work. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) defined it as “flow”, a state of optimal experience characterized by focused attention, clarity of mind, mind-body unison, effortless concentration, complete control, loss of self consciousness and intrinsic enjoyment (Csikszentmihaly, 1990). Self work immersion is one construct which shows empirical support as related to workplace spirituality. Bell and Taylor (2001) used the terms such as “holism” and “wholeness” to describe the concept of bringing one’s spiritual faculties to work. Dehler and Welsh (1994) discuss the concept of self-work immersion in terms of organizational development activities. Krahnke, Giacalone, and Jurkiewicz (2003), discuss this component as a framework of organizational values designed to support such aspects of spirituality.  

Service consciousness may be understood to originate from a deep conviction on the interconnectedness of various beings in the universe, that is, feeling of being part of something bigger than the self (Mitroff & Denton, 1999), and hence makes each person responsible for the welfare of others in a selfless manner. Bhagavad Gita describes this as loksangrah which refers to the welfare of all rather than the welfare of one individual. This is akin to the construct of interconnectedness in workplace spirituality. Interconnectedness is defined as a relationship with others that fosters positive feelings, according to Jurkiewicz and Giacalone (2004).

A third construct quite strongly related to workplace spirituality is self actualization. Burack (1999) defines self-actualization in the realm of spirituality as the meshing together of the mind via work. The full potential of an individual is developed through work at the self actualization level, according to King and Nicol (1999). Bhagavad Gita teaches an individual to practice karma yoga in order to achieve spiritual enlightenment. It means that through the path of karma yoga an individual can achieve his highest potential which is similar to the psychological concept of self actualization.

Leadership

Burns (1978) described two types of leadership, that is, transactional or transformational. Transactional leadership occurs when one person takes the initiative in making contact with others for the purpose of an exchange of valued things. Transformational leadership occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality. Transformational leaders not only recognize and exploit existing needs of potential followers, but also look for potential motives and higher needs in followers. In this way, they completely engage their followers and help them to achieve their fullest potential (Burns, 1978).

Bhagavad Gita provides leadership advice in a number of general areas (Rarick & Nickerson, 2008). First, a leader must be aware of his role and should be prepared to respond to the responsibilities imposed by their position. Being true to oneself and one’s values is an essential aspect according to Gita. Second, a leader must be both wise as well as proactive in his actions. Leaders are required to take tough decisions at times and presence of inner wisdom would guide them in making the correct decisions. Third, a leader must have the ability to sacrifice own interests over the interests of the group. The leader in the Gita is a humanistic leader who acts without self gain and who has great personal concern for followers. Fourth, a leader must possess qualities like fearlessness, righteousness, charity, self control, selfless service, compassion and perseverance in order to be a good leader (Rarick & Nickerson, 2008).

A transformational leader shows the qualities of a leader as expressed in the Gita. Such a leader motivates followers to go beyond their self interests (Bass, 1998a, 1999). Transformational leadership is the most desirable form of leadership since it can significantly enhance organizational effectiveness. Mulla and Krishnan (2010) demonstrated that karma yoga orientation of a leader enhances transformational leadership. Such leadership further enhances the karma yoga and spirituality of followers (Krishnan, 2007). Kejriwal and Krishnan (2004) also found that a belief in karma enhanced transformational leadership. In another study by Mulla and Krishnan (2012), karma yoga was conceptualized as an outcome of transformational leadership in the Indian context. The empirical findings suggested that transformational leadership enhanced followers’ duty orientation and indifference to rewards. This leads to a conclusion that when the leader practices karma yoga, it further affects the followers and enhances their karma yoga, which collectively benefits the organization. In another study, Mehra and Krishnan (2005) empirically tested the effect of svadharma orientation on transformational leadership and followers’ trust in the leader. It was found that svadharma orientation of the leader significantly enhanced transformational leadership. Under such leadership, followers find meaning and satisfaction transcending their self interests. They are also inspired to exert more efforts for enhanced performance and effectiveness. It is evident from these studies that when a leader engages in his duties as prescribed by the Bhagavad Gita, it not only affects him but also the followers who also engage in the practice of karma yoga. This has a cumulative effect on the organizational efficiency.

Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) can be defined as individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization (Organ, 1988). There have been a large number of behaviors which have been identified to be a part of organizational citizenship behavior. The categories of behavior which are closely related to the Bhagavad Gita philosophy are helping behavior, sportsmanship and civic virtue. Studies have found that OCB is an outcome of transformational leadership mediated by trust in their leaders (Podsakoff et al., 1990). Individuals who have a strong belief in the philosophy of karma feel a sense of relatedness with their colleagues. Being a part of an organization is considered as a duty which is to be fulfilled in order to achieve liberation.

Mulla and Krishnan (2012) found in their study that individuals who had a strong belief in Indian philosophy were also good citizens at the workplace. They were more likely to tolerate less than uncomfortable conditions at the workplace without complaining and were more likely to be proactive in preventing work related problems with others (Mulla and Krishnan, 2012). This supported a previous study by Zinnbauer et al (1997) according to which, people who considered themselves spiritual and religious were more likely to feel interconnected with others (group cohesion) and exhibit self sacrificing behavior (altruism). Madhu and Krishnan (2005) studied the effect of transformational leadership and leader’s Karma-Yoga on Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) of followers. The presence of both Karma-Yoga and transformational leadership together had an enhanced effect on altruism, conscientiousness, and courtesy. Another study by Mulla and Krishnan (2012) showed that transformational leadership enhances followers’ Karma-Yoga. Of the three dimensions of Karma-Yoga, it was found that transformational leadership enhances the duty-orientation of the followers and followers’ indifference to rewards. Biswas (2009) empirically analyzed the relationship between gunas and organizational citizenship behavior. It was found that satva guna was positively related to helping behavior and sportsmanship while rajas was positively related to civic virtue and helping behavior. Tamas was found to be negatively related to civic virtue. It is thus safe to assume that the type of guna predominant in an individual is a predictor of his or her work behavior.  

Bhagavad Gita at the Individual Level

Bhagavad Gita and well being

With the increasing importance and centrality of work in people’s life, problems such as stress, burnout and emotional issues have also increased. Research suggests that the more an individual engages in workplace spirituality, the lesser such problems emerge. It has been found that individuals who are involved in the pursuit of personally meaningful goals possess greater emotional well-being and better physical health than do persons who lack goal direction. Emmons (1999) reviewed seven studies that have reported a significant correlation between spirituality and mental health indices of life satisfaction, happiness, self esteem, hope and optimism, and meaning in life. There is growing evidence that suggests positive individual level outcomes for employees such as increased joy, serenity, job satisfaction and commitment (eg., Burack, 1999; Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003a; Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002).

Psychological isolation, alienation and lack of meaning at work is a common occurrence. Emmons (2003) reported that work takes on a new meaning and significance when it is seen as a calling,  a sacred duty, a service opportunity or a way to serve God, or a higher purpose. When work is seen as a calling, it becomes more meaningful and this increases productivity and commitment of employees (Reave, 2005).  

Bhagavad Gita preaches non attachment to the fruits of actions performed in the course of one’s duty. Work performance based on anticipated benefits suffers on account of the mental agitations caused by the anxieties of the future. Here, Gita tells us not to mortgage the present commitment to an uncertain future. This acts as a great approach towards energy conservation and a preventive method against stress and burnout in the work situations. Attaining the state of niskama karma prevents the ego and the mind from dissipation through speculation on future gains or losses (Satija, 2011). Krahnke, Giacalone, and Jurkiewicz (2003) found individual level outcomes such as increased physical and mental health of employees, advanced personal growth, and enhanced sense of self worth associated with workplace spirituality.

Interconnectedness

Workplaces have replaced local communities and social groups that establish a sense of connectedness. Spirituality at work provides employees a sense of community and connectedness. Workplace spirituality is linked to increased levels of employee attachment, loyalty and belongingness (Milliman et al., 1999). There is also considerable amount of research linking spirituality to consideration towards others at work (eg., Burack, 1999). Consideration towards others is further correlated with higher job satisfaction, low turnover, group cohesion, group performance, and group efficiency (Bass, 1990). 

The practice of interconnectedness or loksangrah is an important teaching from the Bhagavadgita. At the workplace, employees must work in tandem with his or her colleagues. Rejoicing in the welfare of fellow employees creates a positive work environment conducive to work. Treating all colleagues with equal respect and positive attitude further improves the workplace environment.

In a study conducted by Mulla and Krishnan (2012), it was found that individuals who strongly believe in the doctrine of karma, liberation and divinity of all, show a strong sense of relatedness with their work and their colleagues in the work environment. They believe that they are a part of a particular team, department or organization for a larger purpose, that is, to fulfill their past obligations. The only way in which one can achieve liberation is through the conscientious discharge of those past obligations. Such individuals were also more likely to tolerate less than uncomfortable conditions at workplace without complaining and were more likely to be proactive in preventing work related problems with others (Mulla & Krishnan, 2012). 

   

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