Historical and Contemporary Psychology Paradigms of Leadership

Historical and Contemporary Psychology Paradigms of Leadership

Socrates lived in 4th Century B.C. Wrote no book's and main source of his ideas came from Plato's Dialogues.

"I suppose that under all conditions human beings are most willing to obey those whom they believe to be the best. Thus in sickness they most readily obey the doctor, on board ship the pilot, on farm the farmer whom they think most skilled in his business. People will obey willingly only those whom they perceive to the better qualified or more knowledge above than they are in a particular situation."

There are three main forms of authority in human affairs the authority of position or rule, the authority of personality and the authority of knowledge. Socrates emphasized the later. It is the man or woman who knows what to do and how to do it will be obeyed, especially in times of crises. For Socrates and his school as exemplified by Plato, knowledge is the main gateway to leadership. Xenophon besides being a successful military leader himself also taught leadership. From his close observation of men in action, he made a distinction between those leaders who won willing obedience from their subordinates and colleagues, as compared to those who merely extracted compliance from them either out of fear or a grudging acceptance of authority of knowledge.

People are most willing to obey those who know what they are doing.

As the experience of Xenophon himself and his observations of other generals suggests, a good leader gives direction sets an example and shares danger or hardship on an equal footing. He or she should win respect without courting popularity.

There is a difference between managing-administration planning and controlling and leadership. A good leader does those things but transcends them he or she has the secret of harnessing the willing and support of others to the command task at hand. The story of Xenophon's assault on the Carducci illustrates another Cardinal Principle of leadership. Leaders encourage people. They renew spirits giving others fresh courage to pursue the common course of action.

Xenophon in the cyropaedia listed the qualities of good leader as:

*                     Temperance

*                     Justice

*                     Sagacity

*                     Amiability

*                     Presence of mind

*                     Tactfulness

*                     Humanity

*                     Sympathy

*                     Helpfulness

*                     Courage

*                     Magnanimity

*                     Generosity

*                     Considerateness.

Aristotle the, Plato's greatest pupil suggested Just four qualities of leadership:

i)        Justice

ii)       Temperance

iii)      Prudence

iv)      Fortitude

Lordslim also taught four qualities:

i)        Courage

ii)       Willpower

iii)      Initiative

iv)      Knowledge

These qualities are necessary but not sufficient - they won't enable your a leader but you can't be one without them.

It is important to distinguish qualities of personality and character from knowledge in the technical and professional sense.

Leadership Skills

There is no body who can't vastly improve his powers of leadership by a little thought and practice.

Socrates explored the issue of transferability of qualities from one profession to another.

Whatever a man controls, if he knows what he wants and can get it he will be a good controller, whether he controls a chorus, an estate, a city or army. Socrates described that successful businessmen and generals perform much the same functions. Socrates identified six of these functions or skills.

*                    Selecting the right man for the right job.

*                    Punishing the bad and rewarding the good under them.

*                    Attracting allies and helpers.

*                    Keeping what they have gained.

*                    Being industrious and strenuous in their own work.

But (Nicomachides) one of the generals cross-questioned and said all these are common to both but fighting is not. Socrates replied but surely both are bound to find enemies?

Oh yes they are?

Then it is important for both to get the better of them?

Undoubtedly, but you don't say how business capacity will help when it comes to fighting.

That is just where it will he most helpful, Socrates concluded. For the good businessman, through his knowledge that nothing profits or pays like a victory in the field, and nothing is so utterly unprofitable and entails such heavy loss as a defeat, will be eager to seek and avoid what leads to defeat, prompt to engage the enemy if he sees he is strong enough to win and above all, will avoid an engagement when he is not ready.

A good leader meets the needs of his men, just as a good shepherd looks after his flock.

Within the compass of human needs in working groups, we can distinguish three distinct but overlapping areas of need, to achieve the common task, to be maintained as a team, and the needs of which individuals as such bring with them by virtue of being human. If the common task has sufficient value for them, people in enterprises, organizations and groups experience a need to accomplish it successfully and they look for leaders who will help them to do so.

Individual needs include the basic ones for food and for shelter, for care when wounded or sick and for security in time of danger. But we are personal as well as human, so we seek the social acceptance and esteem which comes from recognition by others of our personal contribution to the common task or the common good. The Greek's thirsted for individual recognition, competitive desire for fame, renown and a heightened sense of being.

The Servant Leader

We are not accustomed to thinking of leaders as servants. We tend to emphasis position rather than responsibility. Socrates had identified the command element of service in all leadership by insisting the care responsibility of leaders is to meet human needs. Jesus clothed much the same message with his religious authority. By so doing, he altered for all time the moral climate of leadership. The deepest flaw in leadership is usually arrogance. The root of arrogance is an inflated pride which makes a person in a position of leadership act in an excessively determined, overbearing on domineering way. The antidotes to the disease of arrogance in relation to leadership go back as for as Lao TZ U, a Chinese thinker in the forth Century BC and supremely to Jesus. In the concept of leadership advanced by both there is a marked absence of assertiveness, a lack of vanity or presumption and the feeling that a leader should see his or her part as something moderate or small in scale especially in comparison to the contribution of others.

The Tao principle is what happens to itself. It is this quality of things spontaneously and in an unselfconscious way, without regard to their effects upon other people's perceptions of oneself, that links Lao Tzu with the teaching of Jesus. There is a freedom from acting for show or indeed for outward things. This refusal to dominate or to lord it over others again parallels the teaching of Jesus. Lao envisaged a leader who practices humility, being neither self assertive nor talkative. The highest good is like that of water wrote Lao. The goodness of water is that it benefits ten thousand creatures, yes itself does not wrangle but it is content with the places that all men disdain. On leadership for example, the following words of AaoTzu have become justly famous:-

A leader is best

When people are hardly aware of his existence.

Not so good when people praise his government.

Less good when people stand in fear.

Worst, when people are contemptuous. Fail to honour people, and they will fail to honour you. But of a good leader, who speaks little

When his task is accomplished his work done.

The People say, we did it our selves.

Jesus chose twelve disciples to apostles. Selected from a largely self chosen band of disciples both men and women, who accompanied Jesus as he went about the country (Israel) teaching and healing, the twelve came to see themselves as the corps of the leaders for the new movement. Jesus saw that they clearly needed instructions in that role and especially in a style of leading other disciples or followers in "the way" that would not be divisive. Their quarrels over prudence gave him several opportunities to teach them about true nature of leadership.

On one occasion for example, as Jesus led his disciples on the road tocapernaum, he heard the noise of voices raised in argument behind him. When he was in the house he asked him, "what were you discussing on the way"? But they were silent, for on the way they had been arguing with one another as to which of them was the greatest. Jesus sat down and called the twelve and he said to them if any of you would be first, he must be last of all & servant of all.

And he took a child and put him in the midst of them. Taking the small boy in his arms, he said, "Truly I say to you, unless you turn to become like children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven. Whoever exalts himself will be humbled and he who humbles himself like the child will be exalted. Ace to John's Gospel, this distinctive of Jesus on the need for a humble style of leadership reached a climax shortly before the end of his life on earth, in the most extra ordinary scene in the whole history of leadership.

"Jesus rose from supper, laid aside his garments and girded himself with a towel. Then he poured water into a basin and began to wash the follower's feet and to wipe them with the towel with which he was girded. He came to simian peter and peter said to him "Lord do you wash my feet? Jesus answered him what I am doing to you do not know but afterwards you will understand." When he had washed their feet and taken his garment's and resumed his place, he said to them, "Do you know what I have done to you? You call me teacher and Lord and you are right so I am. If then your Lord & teacher have washed your feet you also ought to wash one another's feet. For I have given you an example that you also do as I have done to you. Truly, truly, I say to you, a servant is not greater than his master, nor is he who is sent greater than who sent him. If you know these things blessed are you if you do them.

Jesus would be unknown today if he had spent all his time meeting physical needs of his followers. What comes across to us, however is the double message of Jesus, that a leader is one who meets needs and that his or her style should reflect that reality?

How does the idea of servant leadership relate today's hierarchical organizations and the barriers which so often exist with them? All organizations are hierarchical; for organizations are hierarchy it is being organized into orders or ranks each subordinate to the one above it. The principal reason for it was original communication rather than authority, the means by which a leader could communicate effectively with a large goody of people. The real choice is between elaborate organizations with many ranks and much more simple structures. For a variety of reasons, modern organizations have become flatter as unnecessary levels of management have been stripped, we are moving towards just three broad & over lapping bands: strategic operational and team leaders. However this is still a hierarchy. Leadership is paradoxical in that it can and does work in a formal structure, fulfilling managerial roles and respecting order and system as necessary means to an end. Qualities knowledge and skills all have been much emphasized in the context of leadership but inner attitudes the way you think and the way you are inside yourself are as fully important for by a kind of extra sensory perception your people will always come to sense, who you are. You can't hide your inner self as a leader.

As the Zulu proverb say's “I can't hear what you say because what you are is shouting at me." Leadership is just being you.

The ability to give direction

Not the cry but the height of the wild duck leads the flock to fly & follow. Chinese proverb.

Alexander the great on an his Journey through Asia. The world leader suggests the importance of guidance and a journey forwards in time.

There are three kinds of need discernible in any human enterprise. Firstly people need to know where they are going, literally or metaphorically is terms of their common task. Secondly they need the help together as a team. Last but not least each individual, by virtue of being human & personal, also brings & set of needs that require satisfaction. These three variety of need should be conceived of being separate entities, they overlap or interact in a rich variety of ways, sometimes with good and sometimes with ill effects.

Alexander personified the Cardinal military virtues, such as physical courage, as well as mental qualities of a brilliant commander. A team is like a Jigsaw puzzle, of complementary parts fitting perfectly together. Under Alexander’s compelling leadership the Greek army worked as a high performance team. However desperate his circumstances, Alexander was also with its aid, to defeat much bigger armies time after time. Apart from caring his men's individual needs food and water, security, family Alexander also ensured that the outstanding received personal recognition. He knew their names and praised them in public.

Making Right Decisions:

Leadership is about giving direction, but it has to be the right direction. That calls for a practical ability both natural and educated. The Greeks called it phronesis which we might translate as practical judgment or transcendent common sense. Thought precedes decision, decision leads to action. Depending on the Circumstances and especially upon degree of crisis as a leader you need to know when to cut off debate and to initiate the action phase. Intuition is sensing situation as they really are when the evidence is incomplete. It can be disturbed by anxiety or fear, and it should be tested by reason or experiment before being accepted. In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is king, but even a leader with partial vision may sometimes rely upon the blind man's guide dog-intuition.

Imagination is also necessary, for new circumstances call for new ideas. Again, a leader does not have to be particularly imaginative but should be able to stimulate and respond to imaginative thinking in the organization.

The Art of Inspiring while informing effective communicator. To define effective communications, first they know what the aim is. What are the effects or actions that should result from this communication? Secondly they understand the feelings and information already present in the minds of their hearers or readers.

Thirdly they put over what they have to say clearly, simply and vividly, using the most appropriate methods of communication personal conversation, telephone, presentation report or letter. In the context of human enterprise, leaders must both impart and receive a great deal of information daily. They need to be skilled both in putting across information with necessary clarity and conciseness and in listening to what other have to report.

Vision.-What's vision? The word suggests the power of seeing, and by implication the ability to see further ahead and see a wider field than others. A leader has to be concerned with emotion and motive.

Moral is a state of mind. It is that intangilete force which will move a whole group of men to give their last ounce to achieve something, without counting the cost to themselves that makes them feel they are part of something greater than themselves. It they are to feel that their moral must, if it is endure and the essence of moral is that it should endure have certain foundations. These foundations are spiritual intellectual and material and that is the order of their importance. Spiritual, first, because only spiritual foundation can stand real strain. Next intellectual, because men are swayed by reason as well as feeling. Material last important but last because the highest kinds of morale are often met when material conditions are lowest. Spiritual is used not only in religious meaning strictly, but as a belief in a cause.

One did not need to be an orator to be effective. Two things are very necessary first to know what you are talking about and second and most important to believe it yourself.

In our daily music of life who thinks of a telephone operator until he fails to get his connection, of the clerk in our office until he makes a mistake in our salary statement and so on. Unless each department members feel directly that its success and honor are in their hands as much as any body.

A good leader should speak straight at his audience and create an atmosphere to live and work. An atmosphere of doubt of looking back of loss of confidence must cease.

The effect of address to the audience be electric and terrific that it creates new hopes and confidence in future.

Great leaders write their own speeches. But today political leaders and organizational leaders hire speech-writers, professionals who help them to communicate more effectively. It is indeed difficult to appear sincere when one is using borrowed words in order to inspire others. This belief that we can create and sustain an image of good leadership through our borrowed ad campaigns is still a doubtful concept?

No single leader knows all the answers but a good leader tends to show empathy-the capacity for participating in another feelings and ideas. In that context certain theatricality is involved in it. For leader who is invisible and in audile to some and selectively communicating to the rest can seldom he effective and certainly not great.

Listening leaders with their hearts and heads and third inner ear to the leanings and feelings is always better.

Any one can hold the helm when the seas are calm. The test of your powers of communication comes when seas are rough with change, and people feel disoriented and out of touch. Can you communicate hope when all about you are doubting the promise of future?

It is not merely the thing that is said, but the man who says it that counts, the character which breathes through the sentences. Trust and good communication go hand in hand. Where there is a trust even bad news can be communicated. The more you communicate the plain truth or the realities of the situation, the more people will trust and support you. The bird carries the wings but the wings carry the bird. Techniques have a place but truth is great communicator.

Part of human nature is the desire to excel-very often this latent greatness needs to be merely sparked into life by a leader. Good leaders draw from ordinary people extraordinary performance.

Wise leaders win valuable support by seeing as much consensus as possible in decision-making.

A leading school master of the day wrote to his fellow teachers. We are they who help to make or mar all. They that are flower of our nation, and these who become leaders of the rest are committed to our education & Instruction. Self control enabled a man to find the mean between extremes, to see both himself and the world which lived with objective justice and to apply such justice. A brave captain is as root, out of which as branches, the courage of his soldiers does spring.

It he permitted reason to rule his abilities would become virtues, If on the other hand, he was driven by the lower part of his soul if his emotions and passions ruled without the bridle of reason, than his abilities would degenerate into vices.

Courtesy consists of two parts

Knowing what behavior fits to each person including oneself, and graciousness in giving to each his or her due. The fountain of all excellent manners is majesty. Machiavelli (1500) wrote men ought to be treated well or utterly crushed. He wrote since they can avenge small injuries but not great ones. A prince who wants’s to hold his own must know how to do wrong when necessary."

George Washington born in 1732 on April 30, 1789 Washingtonian took the oath of office as first president of United States.

Laborer considered as a set of number. In prayer before birth, the twentieth century poet Louis Macniece voiced these lingering fears as he prayed against.

"Those who would freeze my humanity, would dragoon me into a lethal automaton would make me a cog in a machine, a thing with one face a thing and against all those who would dissipate my entirety."

Let them not make me stone and let them not spill me otherwise kill me." Industrialists saw them as masters, bosses not as leaders.

War office selection on board (WOSB) spread over several days. Selecting leaders for groups by placing candidates in groups with tasks to perform. The tasks are developed to do outdoor exercises, such as getting a barrel over a stream with limited equipment. Role plays, giving a talk and leading group. The pace and demands of the programma introduce element of stress, no new thing when selecting leader for battle. How far each candidate perform necessary functions to help the group to achieve the task and hold it together as a working team. From the moment a man start to be trained as an officer he must be thought to regard himself as someone who has voluntarily accepted a huge responsibility and who has a very high standard to maintain everything he does. Lawrence of Arabia said, "No man can be a leader except he eats the same food as his men, wears the same clothes, leads the same life and yet appears better in himself.

Leadership is of the spirit, commanded of personality and vision, its practice is an art. Management is of the mind more a matter of accurate calculation of statistics, of methods time, tables and routine, its practice is science. If managers are necessary leaders are essential. The most brilliant surgeon is not necessarily the best man to run a hospital nor the bestselling author to run a publishing house. The technically trained man in not answer to solve a leadership position.

Charisma-There is a useful distinction to be made between invocation and evocation. Evocation happens without design but invocation is a conscious intention. Charisma could be deliberately invoked.

Women as leaders

In 1960 Srimao-Bhandarnaike of Srilanka became the world’s first women prime minister. Since then Indira Gandhi, Golda Meir, Isabelita person, Margreat Thatcher, Benazir Bhulto and Cora Aquino have all risen to the chief position in their respective countries. Christianity brought seeds of change in the perception of the value of women relative to Men. Queen Elizabeth I was head of the state and head of the church of England (1588).

Prejudice dies hard. Not until nineteenth century the age of progress did women begin to emerge in larger numbers as leaders. In 1854 Florence Nightingale heard about the terrible conditions of the wounded British soldiers is the Crimean war; she offered to lead a party of women nurses to work in the military hospital. She introduced important technique of modern reform the use of statistics. In 1903 Emmelive pankhursts formed the women's social and political union along with her three daughters and ten other women. Their slogan was simple but, powerful, vote for women on the very day in June 1928 that Mrs. Pankhurstdied, the final Bill giving women the same voting rights as Men went through parliament in England. The two world wars gave further stimulus to take-up Careers.

In family we usually make better decisions when both sexes are involved and same applies to Industry. Women seem to have better intuitive capabilities and a deeper in build sense of fundamental responsibility. They are prepared to stick with details longer then men and to ensure that things are actually done right. The best decisions come when men & Women work together as a team. There is no evidence however that male and female qualities as such exist. Courage and aggressiveness, are by no means uniquely characteristics. All attempts to generalize about the leadership qualities or abilities that women possess as opposed to men upon closer examination seem to collapse like a house of cards.

Necessary Art of Persuasion

You use logic, persistence and personal enthusiasm to get others to buy a good idea. Most effective persuader seem to share a common trait, they are open minded never dogmatic. Effective persuaders involves four distinct and essential steps. First effective persuades establish credibility second they frame their goals in way that identifies common ground with those they intend to persuade. Third they reinforce their positions using vivid language and compelling evidence. And fourth they connect emotionally with their audience.

The strategy of presentation is also very critical. Credibility grows out of two source : expertise and relationship. People are considered to have high levels of expertise if they have a history of sound judgment. On relationship side people with high credibility are trusted to listen and work in the best interest of others. To overcome the expertise aspect one should consult the knowledgeable individuals through formal or informal means. To overcome relationship gap one should meet one to one with all key people you plan to persuade.

After all few people will jump on board a train that will bring them to ruin or even mild discomfort. Effective persuader must be adept in framing their position that illuminates the advantage of shared benefit.

Most common mistakes of persuasion-setting out a strong position at the start of persuasion effort gives potential oppenent.

Many managers see compromise as surrender but compromises can often lead to more sustainable solutions. They think the secret of persuasion lies in presenting great argument in one shot effect. Persuasion is a process not an event.

Experiments in psychology indicate that people are more likely to follow someone who is similar to them than someone who is not. The intuitive truth that people tend to treat you the way you treat them. Individuals are more likely to keep promises they make voluntarily and explicitly. Exclusive information is more persuasive then widely available data. Playing the "Because I am the boss" Card is out. It is demeaning and demoralizing for all concerned.

Give what you want to receive. Leaders should model the behavior they want to see from other a sense of trust, a spirit of cooperating or a pleasant demeanor. If an undertaking is forced, co-erced or imposed from outside it is not a commitment it is an unwelcome burden.

There is no trick to motivating others. It requires a clear unbiased of understanding of the situation at hand, deep insight into the vagaries of human nature at both individual and group levels, the establishment of appropriate and reasonable expectations and goals and the construction of balanced set of tangible and intangible incentives.

People at the top of their organization often forget how hard is it for the people at bottom. If the leader can make the people at the bottom feel like they are cared for the entire organization will feel inspired and motivated.

Through the period (1999 to 2001) 1700 executives were surveyed to know about their decision making processes by Miller Williams. After doing the cluster analysis of the data executives’ behaviors fell into five groupings. 25% of the executives’ interviews were charismatic. Charismatic are often described as enthusiastic, captivating, talkative, domiant and persistent. They are risk taking yet responsible individuals. They are rarely convinced by one-sided arguments that lack a orientation toward results. Charismatic make their final decisions very methodically and the decisions are based on balanced information.

Thinkers:- 11 % of the executives interviewed were most difficult decision makers to understand and consequently toughest to persuade. They are often described as cerebral. Intelligent , logical and academic. They are voracious readers and selective about the words they use. Not usually known for their social skills, thinkers tend to guard their emotions. They are driven more by the need to retain control than by need to innovate. Prominent examples include Michael bell, Bill Gates. They strive to understand all perspectives of a given situation and a strong aversion to risk.

Skeptics:- 19% of the executives were highly suspicions of every single data, especially any information that challenges their worldview. The most important trait of skeptics is that they tend to have very strong personalities. They can be demanding. Disruptive , disagreeable rebellions and even antisocial. He will be demanding of both your time & energy.

Followers:- 36% of executive interviewed made decisions on how they have made similar choices in the past or how other tested executive have made them.

Because they are afraid of making wrong choice, followers will seldom be early adopters. Instead they trust in known brands and in bargain, both of which represent less risk. Above all they are responsible decision makers which are why they are most often found in large corporations. With a follower, don't try to sell yourself unless you have a strong track record of success.

Controllers:- 9% of the executive interviewed were controllers. They abhor uncertainly and mutuality and they will focus on the pure facts and analysis of an argument. They are both constrained and driven by their own fears and insecurities. They are described as logical, unemotional, sensible, detail oriented, accurate, analytical and objective. Controllers can be loners and are often self absorbed, traits that lead them to make unilateral decision. Indeed, although a controller may talk to others about a decision, he will seldom generally listen to them or consider their input. When dealing with controllers, you need to overcome their internal fears, which they will pretend they don't have. In a meeting, remember that controllers can be self-absorbed, so be prepared for long silences during your interactions. Often a controller will jump to illogical conclusions. In practice, the only way to sell on idea to controller is not to sell it your best bet is to simply supply them with information they need and hope they will convince themselves. Although controllers and skefitics share several characteristics, a key difference is that controllers need ample time to make decision (they hate to be rushed). One of the worst things you can do with a controller is to push your proposal too aggressively. When that happens controllers are likely to see you as part of the problem and not the solution. There is also a concept of "tempered radicals" as they effect significant changes in moderate ways. There are four incremental approaches that leaders can use to create lasting cultural change. Most subtle is "disruptive self expression" in dress, office decor, or behavior which can slowly change an unproductive atmosphere as people increasingly notice and emulate it. Once people take notice of the expression they begin to talk about it. Eventually, they may feel brave enough to try some thing themselves. In a classic case of tempered radical "Dr. Frances Conley was a leading neuro Surgeon at Stanford Medical School. She struggled daily to maintain her feminine identify in a macho profession and her integrity amid gender discrimination. Complicated brain surgery and sometime male colleague would stride into operating room to say "Move over honey". Despite the frustration and anger. She felt, Dr. Conley at that time had no intention of making a huge issue of her gender. She did not went to compromise her position; so she expressed herself in all sorts of subtle ways, including what she wore. Along with her green surgical scrubs, She donned white lace ankle socks- an unequivocal expression of her femininity. In itself wearing lace ankle socks could hardly he considered a Gandhian act of civil disobedience. The socks merely said "I can be a neurosurgeon and be feminine."

But they spoke loudly enough in the stolid masculinity of surgical environment and along with other small actions on her part, they sparked conversation in the hospital. Nurses and female residents frequently commented on Dr. Conley's style. "She is as demanding as any man and is not afraid to take them on." They would say in admiration.

Does a wearing lacy sock force immediate change in the culture? Of course not: such acts are too modest. But disruptive self expression does do two important things. First, it reinforce the tempered "radical's sense of the importance of his or her convictions. These act are self affirming. Secondly it pushes the status auto door slightly ajar by introducing an alternative modus operand)' verbal jujitsu - like most martial arts, jujitsu involves taking a force coming at you and redirecting it to change the situation. Considerable self control and emotional intelligence is required in practicing it. You study and listen to the situation at hand and carefully calibrate others responses to disarm without harming.

Variable-Term opposition:- Like Jazz musician who build completely new musical experiences from old standards as they go along, tempered radicals must be creatively open to opportunity. Being alert to capitalize on short term circumstances and being ready to capitalize on long term opportunities is very essential.

Strategic Alliance Building

When one enlists the help of like minded, similarly tempered co-workers the strategic alliance gains clout of course tempered radicals know that not everyone is an ally, but they also know it's pointless to see those, who represent status Quo as enemies. How can I best use the alliance to support my efforts?

There are two parts of the leadership equation and one part leadership is always highlighted ignoring the follower part. What most analyses seem to ignore that followers have their own identify. Follower's motivations are of two categories couscions and well known and unconscious ones. A number of studies have shown that positive transference are closely linked to productivity. Transference (or transferring experiences and emotions of past to present) is the emotional glue that binds people to a leader.

What we don't know about making Decision

Most leaders think of decision making as a singular event that occurs at a particular point in time. In reality decision making is a process fraught with so many factors of politics, power, play, ego clash, and institutional history and so on. Leaders who can visualize such factors make far better decision than those who preserve in fantasy that decisions are events that they alone control. When a leader uses an advocacy process for decision making using selective presentation, withholding conflicting data and makes it appear as a convincing case.

But the other method of decision making involving inquiry process in which people consider a variety of options and work together to discover the best solution. Moving from advocacy to inquiry requires careful alteration to three critical factors fostering constructive rather than personal conflict. Making sure everyone knows that their view points are given serious consideration if they are not ultimately accepted and knowing when to bring deliberations to a close.

Ability to embrace divergence allows us to forge unity needed for effective implementation. Critical thinking and rigorous debate invariably lead to conflict. The good news is that conflict brings issue into focus allowing leaders to make more informed choices. Indeed conflict comes in two forms-cognitive and affective. In practice the two types of conflict are surprisingly hard to separate. People tend to take any criticism personally and react defensively. The atmosphere quickly becomes charged and emotional fallout tends to linger even if a high quality decision emerges. The challenge for leaders is to increase cognitive conflict while keeping affective conflict low-no mean feat. One technique is to establish norms that make vigorous debate the rule rather than exception.

(Death by power point of an creative culture) and analysis paralysis fine tuning their choices without making a final decision are some of the limitations.

These are Contemporary and historical perspective of leadership that needs to be understood while discovering various facets of this process. It is such an emerging field that nothing could be said with certainty for future and more analysis and researches are needed in this direction.